We know of no study to examine the effects of raisins versus commercial GPCR Compound Library sports

products in runners. GI complaints are more pronounced during running, which may be related to the greater mechanical jarring involved [15]. Reports have also noted that 83% of marathoners and 81% of endurance athletes experience some level of GI distress during training or competition [15]. Ingesting a higher fiber supplement in raisins during an endurance run may cause more GI discomfort than eating lower fiber sports products. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the metabolic and running performance effects and GI tolerance of a natural whole food product (raisins) compared to a commercial product (sport chews) and water only. It was hypothesized that the raisins and chews would elicit similar metabolic responses and both would improve running time trial performance over water only, yet because of the higher fiber content, raisins would elicit greater GI discomfort. Methods Subjects Fourteen healthy competitive runners were recruited from the University of California at Davis (UC Davis) campus find more and local venues. Twelve subjects were

needed based on a power analysis (http://​hedwig.​mgh.​harvard.​edu/​sample_​size/​js/​js_​crossover_​quant.​html) (power = 0.8, significance = 0.05, mean difference (MD) = 0.58 min for performance time of supplement versus water in men only and SD of the MD = 0.64 min) [12]. Three subjects quit during the study before all trials were completed for reasons unrelated to the supplementation (aversion to needles, calf strain, knee pain). Therefore, only 11 of 14 subject’s data were included in the analysis (power = 0.8). Subjects were required to have ran a marathon in <4-hr or completed two half marathons in <2-hr within the past year and run >48 km·week-1. Medical clearance and an informed consent approved by the UC Davis Institutional

Review Board were also required. Training and diet Subjects recorded all training sessions for the week prior to the first sub-maximal exercise test and repeated that same exercise program for the remainder of the study. Subjects were advised to rest or have a light training day prior to all testing days. The subjects’ general diets were monitored by a 3-day 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA lyase diet record completed before the first meeting. 24-hour recalls were completed the day prior to the first sub-maximal exercise trial and repeated exactly for all subsequent trials (Food Processor SQL Version 9.2.0, ESHA Research, Salem, OR). A 240-kcal snack (68% CHO, 16% fat and 16% protein) (Clif Bar, Berkeley, CA) was provided to consume 10-hr before each of their testing times. After the provided evening snack, only water was consumed. Maximal exercise test Subjects reported to the laboratory for their first visit which included a medical clearance examination and maximal exercise test.

In our previous study [1], high levels of leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) enzymatic activity had been detected in both clinical and environmental isolates of B. pseudomallei, by APIZYM analysis (bioMérieux, Marcy l’Etoile, France). LAP which belongs to the peptidase M17 family, is involved in the processing and regular turnover of intracellular proteins by catalyzing the removal of unsubstituted N-terminal amino acids from various peptides [3, 4]. Besides proteolytic Selleck AZD3965 activities, this enzyme is also known to play an important role as a DNA-binding protein in Escherichia coli[5], and a repressor or activator in

the operon regulation of virulence-associated genes in E. coli, Vibrio cholerae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa[6–8]. The LAP enzyme has been proposed as an immunoantigen for vaccination

against Fasciola hepatica in sheep [9, 10] and a promising drug target for Helicobacter pylori infections [11]. As there has not been any study on LAP of B. pseudomallei, the objective of the present study was to characterise the LAP activity of B. pseudomallei and to examine the intra- and inter-species variation in the nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of the LAP encoding gene (pepA). A pepA/PCR-RFLP was designed to facilitate the identification of LAP sequence types and for possible differentiation of phenotypically identical B. pseudomallei isolates. Methods Extraction of Inhibitor Library LAP One milliliter of an overnight-culture of B. pseudomallei NCTC 13178 (McFarland 3) was inoculated into 3 liters of BHI broth and incubated at 37°C for 72 h with constant agitation at 120 rpm in a shaker (DAIKI SCIENCES Co., Ltd., Korea). The bacterial cells were removed by centrifugation at 4,500 rpm for 30 min at 4°C, and the flow-through filtered using a 0.2 μm polyethersulfone membrane (Sartorius Stedium Biotech, Germany). One part of the filtrate was mixed with 2 parts of cold saturated ammonium sulfate solution for 10 min with stirring, prior to centrifugation at 12,000 rpm for 45 min

at 4°C. The precipitate was dissolved in cold 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.6). Desalting was performed using HiPrep 26/10 desalting column (GE Healthcare Bio-Sciences, Sweden) Silibinin coupled to a AKTA™ explorer 100 system (GE Healthcare Bio-Sciences, Sweden). The eluent was concentrated using a Vivaspin 15R column (MWCO 5,000 molecular cut-off, Sartorius Stedium Biotech, Germany) by centrifugation at 6,000 g. The protein concentration of the sample was determined by Quick Start™ Bradford Protein Assay (Bio-Rad, US) using bovine serum albumin as the standard. Zymographic analysis Zymographic analysis was performed to detect the presence of LAP activity in the crude extract of B. pseudomallei NCTC 13178. The extract was diluted 40 fold (0.64 mg/ml) and mixed with NativePAGE™ buffer (4 X) (Invitrogen Corporation, Carlsbad) in a ratio of 3:1.

Increases in body water were similar to the placebo and creatine monohydrate groups. The vast majority of the improvement observed in the present study can most likely be attributed to the training protocol itself, rather than the supplementation. Since creatine ethyl ester supplementation showed a large increase

in serum creatinine levels throughout the study with no significant increase in serum and total muscle creatine content, it can be concluded that a large portion of the creatine ethyl ester was being degraded see more within the GI tract after ingestion. Furthermore, it appears that the skeletal muscle uptake of creatine ethyl ester uptake was not significant enough to increase skeletal muscle creatine levels without significant degradation to creatinine occurring. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the individuals that participated as subjects in this study. This study was supported by supplement donations from Labrada Nutritionals (Houston, TX) and AST Sport Science (Colorado Springs, CO) to Baylor University. Written consent for participation was obtained from all subjects. All researchers involved independently collected, analyzed, and interpreted the results from this study and have no financial interests concerning the outcome of the investigation. References 1. Greenhaff find more P: The nutritional biochemistry

of creatine. J Nutr Biochem 1997, 8:610–8.CrossRef 2. Bemben M, Lamont H: Creatine supplementation Decitabine order and exercise performance: Recent findings. Sports Med 2005, 35:107–25.CrossRefPubMed 3. Demant T, Rhodes E: Effects of creatine supplementation on exercise performance. Sports Med 1999, 28:49–60.CrossRefPubMed

4. Persky A, Brazeau G: Clinical pharmacology of the dietary supplement creatine monohydrate. Pharmacol Rev 2001, 53:161–76.PubMed 5. Mesa J, Ruiz J, Gonzales-Gross M, Sainz A, Garzon M: Oral creatine supplementation and skeletal muscle metabolism in physical exercise. Sports Med 2002, 32:903–44.CrossRefPubMed 6. Yquel R, Arsac L, Thiaudiere E, Canioni P, Manier G: Effects of creatine supplementation on phosphocreatine resynthesis, inorganic phosphate accumulation an pH during intermittent maximal exercise. J Sports Sci 2002, 2:427–37.CrossRef 7. Rawson E, Volek J: Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performance. J Strength Cond Res 2003, 17:822–31.PubMed 8. Kreider R: Creatine supplementation: analysis of ergogenic value, medical safety, and concerns. JEPonline 1998, 1:1–6. 9. Snow R, Murphy R: Creatine and the creatine transporter: A review. Mol Cell Biochem 2001, 224:169–81.CrossRefPubMed 10. Loike J, Zalutsky D, Daback E, Miranda A, Silverstein S: Extracellular creatine regulates creatine transport in rat and human muscle cells. Cell Biology 1988, 85:807–11. 11. Greenwood M, Kreider R, Earnest C, Rasmussen C, Almada A: Differences in creatine retention among three nutritional formulations of oral creatine supplements. JEPonline 2003, 6:37–43. 12.

The remaining Al was selectively dissolved to ensure that the reflection observed was only due to the rugate structure. Figure 4a shows the resulting reflectance spectra. The spectra displayed a well-defined band without sidelobes as we expected from the apodization of the current profile. We observed that the pore-widening treatment resulted in a blueshift of the reflection band as Protease Inhibitor Library concentration well as a lower reflection below and above the band. This is the result of the partial dissolution of the alumina, which decreases the overall refractive index of the rugate filter. A more interesting fact is how the band widened after the pore-widening treatment. This broadening is related to the refractive

index contrast of the rugate filter (Δn). The higher the Δn, the wider the band. This is in good agreement with our previous reported results for NAA obtained with periodic anodization voltages [7, 14]. Analysis of the transmittance measurements (Figure 4b) showed how the pore-widening post-treatment led to less steep edges

in the stop band, possibly due to scattering and absorption CHIR 99021 of the alumina. Figure 4 Reflectance and transmittance characterization of the NAA rugate filters. (a) Reflectance and (b) transmittance spectra of NAA rugate filters anodized for 300 cycles, with an apodized sinusoidal current profile with a period time of T = 200 s. Real-time sensing As a proof of the possible application of this structure, we performed a sensing experiment in a flow cell and monitored the position of the reflectance band in real-time for a sample fabricated Erlotinib molecular weight with a period time of T = 200 s, a total of 300 cycles, and a pore-widening post-treatment of t pw = 5 min (Figure 5). After acquiring a reference of the sample in air, we flowed EtOH at a rate of 1 mL min−1. Then, we flowed deionized water and, finally, EtOH again in order to prove the repeatability of the measurement. The results presented in Figure 5 show a highly stable signal with no significant drift within the time range and a very low noise of about 0.04 nm. The NAA rugate filter was able to distinguish

between two liquids with a similar refractive index (n water = 1.333, n EtOH = 1.362) with a sensitivity of 48.8 nm/refractive index unit (RIU). Moreover, when EtOH was reintroduced into the chamber, the position of the reflection band returned to the same value of the first EtOH infiltration, indicating the high reproducibility of the results. Figure 5 Sensing results. Real-time measurement of a NAA rugate filter in a flow-cell where EtOH, deionized water, and EtOH were serially flushed in to the chamber. Conclusions NAA rugate filters were fabricated using a current control method based on a sinusoidal current profile with a maximum amplitude of just 1.45 mA cm−2. Thanks to this small current peak-to-peak value, the voltage was contained within 40 ± 5 V.

PTS group translocators, like ABC transporters, are usually high affinity systems that recognize their sugar substrates with micromolar or sub-micromolar affinities. Since they use phosphoenolpyruvate to energize uptake, the same arguments presented for ABC transporters apply. Monocarboxylates (3.6% – 23 total) are transported by 15 secondary carriers and 11 primary active transporters. Di- & tricarboxylates and

aromatic compounds are transported solely by secondary carriers while noncarboxylic organoanions are mostly transported by secondary carriers. In summary, sugars are transported primarily by ATP-driven porters, while organic anionic compounds are transported primarily by pmf-driven carriers. This observation is in agreement with the primary energy source generated by the metabolism of these compounds (ATP from sugars; the pmf from organic acids). Amino acids & their derivatives are transported primarily by secondary carriers although peptides are taken Decitabine up almost exclusively by ABC systems. Transporters for amino acids and conjugates (9% – 56 total) include secondary carriers

(39 proteins), primary active transporters (16 proteins), and a single channel. Amines, amides, polyamines & organocations (2.4% – 15 total) were found to be transported by both primary active transporters (5 proteins) and secondary carriers (7 proteins). They are also transported by two amino sugar 5-Fluoracil order uptake group translocators (both TC# 4.A.1.1.5) and a channel protein (TC# 1.A.11.1.3). With the exception of one secondary carrier (TC# 2.A.17.1.1), almost all peptides (3.8% – 21 total) are taken up or expelled by primary active transporters (20 proteins). Considered collectively, nitrogenous compounds are thus transported roughly equally by primary and secondary carriers. Vitamins and especially iron siderophore complexes are primarily

taken up via ABC-type active transporters. Specifically, vitamins & vitamin or cofactor precursors are taken up by primary active transporters (5 proteins), secondary carriers (3 proteins) and a single group translocator. Transporters for siderophores and siderophore-Fe Thiamet G complexes (29 total) are mostly primary active transporters (21 proteins), with fewer secondary carriers (8 proteins). This fact probably reflects the need for high affinity recognition due to the low concentrations of these substances in the external environment. Transport of drugs and other hydrophobic substances occurs primarily by secondary pumps. Systems for multiple drugs (8.7% – 56 total) are exported via secondary carriers (36 proteins) and primary active transporters (20 proteins), but almost all of the specific drug exporters (62 total) are secondary carriers (58 proteins), with only four exceptional primary active transporters. By contrast, of the 8 pigment exporters identified [26, 27], 7 proved to be primary carriers. All other systems specific for hydrophobic substances are primary active transporters.

In all of these environments, the most ubiquitous species are Rhodotorula laryngis and Cr. victoriae.

On the other hand, C. sake, D. fristingensis, G. antarctica and Sp. salmonicolor have been isolated only in the Southern Cone (South American glaciers and Antarctica). This work reports CHIR-99021 in vivo for the first time the isolation of Cryptococcus gastricus, Cryptococcus gilvescens, D. fristingensis and Leucosporidiella creatinivora from an Antarctic region. Also isolated was W. anomalus, which is not generally found in cold regions. During molecular analysis of the yeasts, most isolates assigned to the same species possessed identical D1/D2 and ITS sequences. Thus, combining these rDNA regions is a useful technique for rapid identification and typing of yeasts, as others have suggested [14, 20, 21]. However, the isolates identified as Leuconeurospora sp. were 0.7% and 0.9% different in their D1/D2 (578 bp) and ITS (534 bp) sequences, respectively.

Similarly, the isolates identified as D. fristingensis exhibited identical D1/D2 (456 bp) sequences, but their ITS (479 bp) sequences were markedly different (4.4%), and their overlap was punctuated with several gaps. Furthermore, given the physiological differences between isolates that are identical or similar at molecular level, strongly support that the definitions of yeast species must be supplemented by classical characterizations. Most yeast isolates showed lipase activity, consistent with a previous report in which all of the filamentous fungi from Erlotinib Antarctica displayed this activity [22]. Among the Opaganib concentration “cold loving” yeasts, lipase activity

has been described in Pseudozyma antarctica[23], Leucosporidium antarcticum[24] and in species of Cryptococcus and Rhodotorula[25]. Unlike this last-mentioned study, we detected lipase activity in R. laryngis also. Lipase activity has also been described in W. anomalus from tropical environments [26]. The least common extracellular activity was xylanase, observed only in the D. fristingensis isolate. Although this activity has been previously described in Cryptococcus species [27, 28], no xylanase activity was observed in the Cryptococcus isolates identified here. Consistent with our results, protease, amylase and esterase extracellular activities have been reported in several yeast species isolated from cold and tropical environments [24–26, 29–33]. However, we present the first report of extracellular amylase activity in Le. creatinivora, H. watticus, Leuconeurospora sp. and D. fristingensis. In addition to Mrakia and Rhodotorula species, for which extracellular pectinase activity has been described [33], we detected pectinase activity in species of Wickerhamomyces, Metschnikowia, Dioszegia, Leucosporidiella and Candida.

Previous studies based on whole genome sequencing data using PAML have not identified aes to be under positive selection [17, 18]. Visual comparison of the phylogenetic history of aes with that of the six concatenated housekeeping genes, reflecting the species phylogeny, revealed a similar topology with four main phylogenetic groups (Fig. 2). Indeed, all strains belonging to the B2 Luminespib phylogenetic group were clustered in a monophyletic group (bootstrap 99%) with ECOR 66 at

its base, as observed in the MLST tree. Likewise, two sub-groups were observed for phylogenetic group D, one of which was associated with the phylogenetic group B2 (ECOR 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41) (bootstrap 85%), also observed in the MLST tree. Phylogenetic group A also constituted two sub-groups, although these were not sister groups. By contrast, the B1 phylogenetic group was monophyletic overall, with only two strains (ECOR 4 and ECOR 47) clearly misclassified (Fig. 2). Figure 2 Phylogenetic trees for the 72 ECOR strains and six E. coli reference strains. The trees were

constructed from (A) aes sequences and (B) multi-locus sequence typing of STI571 mw six housekeeping genes representing the species phylogeny (trpA, trpB, pabB, putP, icd and polB) [5], obtained using PHYML procedure [50]. E. fergusonii was used as an outgroup. Bootstraps are shown for values higher than 70%. Strains studied and belonging to phylogenetic groups A (blue boxed), B1 (green boxed), B2 (red boxed), D (yellow boxed) and UG (white boxed) are indicated. We used a recently developed technique (“”TreeOfTree”") allowing the level of congruence between phylogenetic trees to be tested [19]. We tested each individual housekeeping gene tree, the MLST tree, and Carbohydrate the aes tree. All the bootstraps are low enough (less than 67%) to suggest that all the gene trees can be view as not incongruent, the aes gene tree itself clustering with pabB and trpA

gene trees with very low bootstrap (44%) (Fig. 3). Thus, aes tree topology showed that aes is a powerful marker of the species phylogeny, as observed for each housekeeping gene used in the MLST scheme. Figure 3 Tree representing the distance matrix generated from comparisons between gene tree structures. Gene tree structure comparisons were between trees based on aes sequences, six individual housekeeping genes (trpA, trpB, pabB, putP, icd and polB) and multi-locus sequence typing (concatenation of the six housekeeping genes), with distances derived from path-length difference. Numbers are bootstraps. Aes B1 and B2 protein variants were then compared by protein modelling. We found that residues S 157, D 254 and H 284 had a geometry similar to that of the esterase catalytic site.

26 nM) of the unlabelled toxin for 1 hour at 37°C. Heterologous competitive binding assays Similar trends were observed for both crude Btj toxin and crude Bt 22 toxin (Figure 3). Both graphs showed a decreasing trend in the percentage of biotinylated purified Bt 18 toxin bound to CEM-SS with increasing toxin concentrations. For crude Btj toxin the percentage of bound biotinylated purified Bt 18 toxin

significantly decreased from 100% to 78% at 59.26 nM (p < 0.001). For crude Bt 22 toxin, the percentage of bound biotinylated purified selleck screening library Bt 18 toxin significantly decreased from 100% to 80.81% at 59.26 nM (p < 0.05). However, the difference between crude Btj toxin and crude Bt 22 toxin was statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). Figure 3 Heterologous competitive binding assays- biotinylated purified Bt 18 toxin versus crude Btj and crude Bt 22 toxins. Fixed concentration (7.41 nM) of biotinylated purified Bt 18 toxin was allowed to compete with various concentrations (0 nM to 59.26 nM) of crude Btj toxin and crude Bt 22 toxin separately for 1 hour at 37°C using CEM-SS cell line. It was observed that the graphs show a similar pattern for all the anticancer drugs i.e., the higher

the drug concentration, the lower the percentage of biotinylated purified Bt 18 toxin bound to CEM-SS cells (Figure 4). There was a statistically significant but minor decrease in the percentage of binding of the biotinylated toxin on CEM-SS cells when competed with methotrexate https://www.selleckchem.com/products/nivolumab.html (< 30%, p < 0.05) and BCKDHB doxorubicin (< 10%, p < 0.05) with increasing drug concentration. On the other hand, it was found that cisplatin, etoposide and navelbine caused a greater decrease (> 30%) in the percentage of binding of the biotinylated toxin on CEM-SS with increasing drug concentration. This decrease was significant for cisplatin and etoposide (p < 0.001) but insignificant for navelbine (p > 0.05) at the highest drug concentration (59.26 nM). The percentage of displacement of the biotinylated toxin on CEM-SS at the highest drug concentration

for the cisplatin, doxorubicin, etoposide, navelbine and methotrexate were 32.76%, 9.82%, 44.67%, 40.27% and 20.40% respectively. However, such high percentage of displacement of the biotinylated toxin at the highest drug concentration was also confounded by a high percentage of cell death (results not shown). Therefore, displacement of the biotinylated toxin at the highest drug concentration may or may not be due to true competition. Figure 4 Heterologous competitive binding assays- biotinylated purified Bt 18 toxin versus various anticancer drugs. Fixed concentration (7.41 nM) of biotinylated purified Bt 18 toxin was allowed to compete with various concentrations (0 nM to 59.26 nM) of cisplatin, doxorubicin, etoposide, methotrexate and navelbine, separately for 1 hour at 37°C.

The ongoing question of how to best analyze microbial community datasets is paramount to deducing the processes that affect the composition and function of microbial communities. The type of information and metric used to measure biological diversity in any study of microbial diversity is a decision that must be well-justified prior to hypothesis PD0325901 price testing instead of being made arbitrarily based solely on which metrics are popularly used by plant and animal ecologists. This justification, in turn, should be

based on evidence produced by work, such as this study, that has systematically tested the efficacy and utility of these diversity metrics under a range of situations. Availability of supporting data The R code adapted from Leinster & Cobbold [17] and used to calculated diversity profiles is available see more for download and use at https://​gist.​github.​com/​darmitage. The hypersaline lake viruses raw sequencing reads are available in the NCBI BioProject (accession number PRJNA81851, http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​bioproject/​?​term=​PRJNA81851). The subsurface

bacteria dataset is available at: http://​banfieldlab.​berkeley.​edu/​SOM/​yelton2012/​. Acknowledgements Funding for this project was provided by a National Science Foundation Grant (#1050680) to Sandy Andelman and Julia Parrish: The Dimensions of Biodiversity Distributed Graduate Seminar (DBDGS). HMD was funded by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. Funding for JBE and the hypersaline lake virus study was provided by National Science Foundation award 0626526 and Department of Energy award DE-FG02-07ER64505.

JK was funded by a NASA – Harriett G. Jenkins Pre-Doctoral Fellowship and a Mycological Society of America – NAMA Memorial Fellowship. The authors would like to thank S. Andelman, J. Parrish, C. Maranto, R. Sewell Nesteruk, J. Prosser, T. Bruns, and all other DBDGS participants for their input throughout the project. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Table S1: – Results of the community composition analyses (Jaccard and Unifrac) for the four environmental microbial community datasets. Figure S1. – Acid mine drainage bacteria and archaea (GAIIx) diversity profiles. Figure S2. Paclitaxel price – Hypersaline lake viruses methyltransferase diversity profiles. Figure S3. – Hypersaline lake viruses concanavalin A-like glucanases/lectins diversity profiles. Figure S4. – Substrate-associated soil fungi forest diversity profiles. Figure S5. – Acid mine drainage bacteria and archaea (HiSeq) phylogenetic (UniFrac) and taxonomic (Jaccard) hierarchical dissimilarity clusters. Figure S6. – Acid mine drainage bacteria and archaea (GAIIx) phylogenetic (UniFrac) and taxonomic (Jaccard) hierarchical dissimilarity clusters. Figure S7.

The clear advantage of analyzing lumbar vertebrae is the opportunity to measure both trabecular as well as cortical bone properties. Vertebral bodies should be observed as a functional unit; their stability is a result of the synergy between a cortical frame and an inner trabecular network. Thus, both structures resist force. Osteoprotective treatments may influence the trabecular as well as the cortical bone. The evaluation GSK2118436 of vertebral body bone strength without the cortical shell can therefore lead to unreliable results. Information regarding the benefit of the short-term effects of WBVV on lumbar vertebrae in animal models is rare. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that low-magnitude WBVV after short-term application

can stimulate bone formation in SHAM and OVX rats. Most parameters measured in this study resulted in improved bone quality after WBVV treatment. The differences were most pronounced in the biomechanical test, the ashing and the histomorphometric evaluation. Because of technical limitations (lower spatial resolution compared to μCT), the fpVCT prototype cannot detect all subtle changes of bone structure after short-term WBVV. With this fpVCT prototype, a spatial resolution of approximately 150 µm was achieved. The average trabecular thickness in rats is approximately 50 µm and the space between them is about 150 µm. With fpVCT, trabecular destruction can only be detected indirectly. The https://www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-0332991.html subtle changes

after WBVV should therefore be detected by μCT in the rat osteopenia model. Because ADAMTS5 of the different proportions of human compared to rat bone, fpVCT would be better able to analyze trabecular microstructures in humans. The improved trabecular microstructure after WBVV resulted in better biomechanical properties and higher ash-BMD values. Similar to previous studies in which vibratory stimuli positively influenced bone mass in post-menopausal women [24], we demonstrated that WBVV can serve as an anabolic signal to a skeleton independent of estrogen level. The results

of the presented study are consistent with the results of Rubin et al. [25], who found an inhibition of BMD decline in the spine following menopause. Gilsanz et al. [26] found an increase in bone of approximately 2% and an increase in muscle strength of about 5% in young women with low BMD after 1 year of vibration. These results are in contrast to those reported by Rubinacci et al. [27], who found that WBVV requires the absence of gonadal estrogens to be anabolic. In their study, they analyzed the effect of vibratory stimuli on rat tibiae. The discrepancy in the results of these studies could result from a different allocation of estrogen receptor α in vertebrae compared to tibiae, which has been shown to have increased expression in response to mechanical strain in vitro and in vivo [28, 29]. Torvinen et al. [30] did not find any effects after vibration after a 4-min vibration program in young adults.