The isolated granulocytes were 95% pure and contained 1–3% CD3+ T cells. Granulocytes (2 × 106/ml) were stimulated with

PMA/ionomycin or Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands [10–100 µg/ml zymosan, 1–10 µg/ml poly I:C, 0·1–1 µg/ml lipopolysaccharide ICG-001 manufacturer (LPS) or 1 mm CpG] or cytokine cocktails (10 ng/ml IL-1β+ 20 ng/ml IL-23, 4 ng/ml TGF-β+ 10 ng/ml IL-6 + 20 ng/ml IL-23 or 25 ng/ml IL-17) for 24 h in 24-well plates. Cell pellets were collected for RNA extraction. RNA was extracted from 2 × 106 granulocytes by using RNeasy Kit (Qiagen) as described by the manufacturer. RNA was reverse-transcribed to cDNA using MultiScribe RT (Applied Biosystems, Streetsville, Ontario, Canada). cDNA was then amplified using TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems). Primers for IL-17 (product number: Hs99999082_m1),

IL-22 (Hs00220924_m1) and β-actin (Hs99999903_m1) genes were purchased from PD0325901 Applied Biosystems. The fold increase in signal relative to the controls was determined with the change in cycling threshold (ΔCTsample − ΔCTcontrol) and was calculated as follows: R = 2 − (Ctsample − Ctcontrol), where R is relative expression and Ct is cycle threshold. β-actin was used as an endogenous control. Statistical analysis was performed using Prism software (GraphPad) version 2.7.2. Two-tailed P-values were calculated using Wilcoxon test, Fisher’s exact test and non-parametric one-way analysis of variance (anova), as indicated in various figure legends. Because the data are not distributed normally, the non-parametric

Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post-test was performed. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) cut-off values were generated using sensitivity and specificity values with GraphPad prism software. The area under the curve of a ROC curve is related closely to the Mann–Whitney or Wilcoxon’s rank test, which test whether positives are ranked higher than the negatives. As the data are not distributed normally (non-Gaussian), a non-parametric Fisher’s exact test was used to generate a ROC curve to create a cut-off in order to identify TB patients based on the presence of IL-17, IL-22 and IFN-γ-positive CD4+ cells compared to the healthy controls. The circulating levels of IFN-γ-, IL-17- and IL-22-expressing Chloroambucil CD4+ T cells in whole blood were determined by intracellular cytokine assay. The frequencies of IFN-γ-, IL-17- and IL-22-producing CD4+ T cells were found to be lower in active TB patients compared to healthy controls and latent TB subjects (Fig. 1). The gating strategy employed for the identification of IL-17-, IL-22- and IFN-γ-expressing cells is shown (Fig. S1). Due to high variability, the data were analysed using cut-off values. The ROC curve was used to generate the cut-off values maximizing the sensitivity and specificity for predicting the true positives and true negatives within the healthy, latent TB and active TB patient group.

Interestingly, serum vitamin A was dependent on serum Vitamin B12. Immunohistochemistry showed that megalin and cubilin were accumulated at the apical surface of the proximal tubules in B12-Def., and restored in 24 hrs and 7days-CNB12. However megalin expression was not changed at protein and RNA level. Therefore, it is suggested that vitamin B12 deficiency

suppresses the endocytosis via megalin. As a result of confocal imaging, RBP reuptake-vesicles were decreased size and numbers in B12-Def. and restored in 7days-CNB12. RBP expression at protein level was dependent on serum Vitamin B12 level, whereas RBP mRNA was not changed. Conclusion: The Aurora Kinase inhibitor present data shows that vitamin B12 status is linked to endocytosis via megalin, and reabsorption of vitamin A in the kidney. EIAM-ONG SOMCHIT1, SINPHITUKKUL KITTISAK2, MANOTHAM KRISSANAPONG3, EIAM-ONG SOMCHAI4 1Chulalongkorn

University; 2Chulalongkorn University; 3Lerdsin Hospital; 4Chulalongkorn University Introduction: Previous in vitro study showed that aldosterone rapidly stimulates PKC alpha that could activate alpha1 isoform of Na, K-ATPase and then enhances its activity. There are no in vivo data demonstrating the rapid effects of aldosterone on renal protein expressions of PKC alpha and alpha1-Na, K-ATPase simultaneously. The present study further investigates the expression of these proteins. Methods: Male Wistar rats were intraperitoneally injected with normal saline solution or aldosterone (150 mg/kg BW). After 30 minutes, abundances check details and localizations of PKC alpha and alpha1-Na, K-ATPase proteins were determined by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Results: Aldosterone administration significantly increased oxyclozanide plasma aldosterone levels from 1,251.95 ± 13.83 to be 6,521.78 ± 209.92 pmol/L. By western blot analysis, aldosterone enhanced renal protein abundances of PKC alpha (tissue homogenate) and alpha1-Na, K-ATPase (plasma membrane) approximately 50% and 30%, respectively (P < 0.05). From immunohistochemistry examination in sham group, the protein

expression of PKC alpha was prominent in the medulla. Aldosterone stimulated the expression both in cortex and medulla with the translocation from basolateral to luminal side of proximal convoluted tubule. For alpha1-Na, K-ATPase protein expression, the sham rats showed a strong immunostaining in the distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct, and thick ascending limb. Aldosterone elevated the expression in the proximal convoluted tubule and medullary collecting duct. Conclusion: This in vivo study is the first to demonstrate simultaneously that aldosterone rapidly elevates PKC alpha and alpha1-Na, K-ATPase protein abundances in rat kidney. Both immunoreactivities were stimulated in cortex and medulla. The greater affected areas were noted for PKC alpha expression, whereas the alterations of alpha1-Na, K-ATPase were observed only in the proximal tubule and medullary collecting duct.

Cells were permeabilized and stained for 30 min with the surface markers CD3 (clone 17A2), CD4 (clone RM4-5), CD25 (clone PC61.5), for the transcription factor Foxp3 (FJK-16s), and for the cytokines IL-6 (clone MP5-20F3), IFNγ (clone XMG1.2), IL-17 (clone TC11-18H10.1), IL-10 (clone JES5-16E3), and Ly-6G (Gr-1, clone 1A8). All antibodies were purchased from BD Bioscience

(San Jose, CA) or eBioscience (San Diego, CA). For each sample, at least 50  000 cells were analyzed. The data were collected and analyzed using CELLQuest or FlowJo software and a FACScalibur flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA). To determine the levels of secretion of cytokines, dermal Vadimezan datasheet cells pooled from three mice (six ears), or individual lymph node cells, were resuspended at a concentration of 2×106 cells/well in medium RPMI 1640 (supplemented with FCS and antibiotics), seeded into 24-well plates and incubated for 48 h with 50 μg/mL soluble Leishmania antigen alone or combination with 50 μg/mL CpG DNA. Cytokine levels were measured in the supernatants by either using the BD™ CBA Mouse Inflammation Kit following the manufacturer’s instructions (BD Bioscience) or by ELISA (eBioscience). To neutralize IL-6, C57BL/6 mice were injected

Crenolanib with 5 μg anti IL-6 receptor (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN) by intraperitoneal injection on days -1, 1, and 3 relative to vaccination as in 11. To old neutralize IL-17 and IFN-γ, C57BL/6 mice were injected with 10 μg anti IL-17 and/or 10 μg anti IFN-γ (R&D Systems) by intraperitoneal injection on days 6, 9, and 12 days relative to vaccination. Analyses of dermal lymphocytes were performed at different time points post infection. Control mice were inoculated with the same dose of GL113, a rat monoclonal antibody (IgG1) purchased from R&D systems. All comparisons of non-normally distributed continuous data were analyzed with the Mann–Whitney U test or ANOVA using GraphPad Prism (San Diego, CA). The specific test

employed is indicated in each figure. The authors would like to thank Dr. Jay Kolls for providing the IL-17R / mice, and Meleana Hinchman for her technical assistance. This work was supported by the NIH grant no. R21 AI61379. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no financial or commercial conflict of interest. Detailed facts of importance to specialist readers are published as ”Supporting Information”. Such documents are peer-reviewed, but not copy-edited or typeset. They are made available as submitted by the authors. “
“Several assays to measure pre-existing allospecific T cell immunity in renal transplant candidates have been developed in the past years.

An intrauterine injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was administered to CD1 mice at embryonic day 16, ± CRTH2 agonist/vehicle controls. Mice were killed at 4.5 hr to assess fetal wellbeing and to harvest myometrium and pup brain for analysis of NF-κB, and T helper type 1/2 interleukins. To examine the effects of the CRTH2 agonist on LPS-induced preterm labour, mice were allowed to labour spontaneously. Direct effects of the CRTH2 agonist on uterine U0126 ic50 contractility were examined ex vivo on contracting myometrial strips. The CRTH2 agonist increased fetal survival from 20 to 100% in LPS-treated mice,

and inhibited circular muscle contractility ex vivo. However, it augmented LPS-induced labour and significantly increased myometrial NF-κB, IL-1β, KC-GRO, interferon-γ and tumour necrosis factor-α. This suggests that the action of 15dPGJ2 is not via CRTH2 and therefore small molecule CRTH2 agonists are not likely to be beneficial for the prevention of inflammation-induced preterm labour. Preterm labour is one of the most challenging complications of human pregnancy. Its incidence in the western world remains between 6 and 15% depending on the geography and demographics of the population.[1] It

is a heterogeneous condition,[2] with the only firm causal link being that of infection.[3] Despite the increased awareness of the association between infection and inflammation and preterm labour,[4] there have been limited advances in the treatment and prevention of preterm labour. Currently, there is a drive to develop anti-inflammatory therapies to not only delay preterm labour, AZD2014 in vivo but to prevent the long-term neurological damage thought to be a

result of the impact of pro-inflammatory factors on fetal inflammatory response syndrome. The transcription factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), which is classically associated with inflammation, is central to regulating the biochemical pathways involved in both term labour and preterm labour.[5] The oxytocin receptor and cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) genes contain NF-κB response elements in their promoter regions.[6, 7] The oxytocin receptor mediates oxytocin-induced myometrial contractions through activation of phospholipase C and downstream calcium release from intracellular Leukocyte receptor tyrosine kinase stores.[8] The COX-2 enzyme is the rate-limiting step for prostaglandin synthesis, which is responsible for uterine contractions and cervical dilatation. NF-κB is also involved in the transcriptional regulation of matrix metalloproteinases, including matrix metalloproteinase-9, which are required for remodelling of the extracellular matrix,[9] leading to cervical ripening and fetal membrane rupture. A positive feed-forward loop also exists from activation of NF-κB by the pro-inflammatory cytokines and subsequently their transcriptional activation, including tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β).

Among various miRNA, miR-155 has been associated with the regulation of different immune-related processes, such as haematopoiesis,14 B-cell and T-cell differentiation,15 cancer16 and innate immunity.12 The miR-155 is processed from an exon of a non-coding RNA transcribed from the B-cell Integration Cluster located on chromosome 21, showing strong sequence homology 3-MA ic50 among humans, mice and hens, and is highly expressed in cells of lymphoid and myeloid origin.17 Recently, miR-155 has been identified

and characterized as a component of macrophage and monocyte response to different types of inflammatory mediators, such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interferon-β (IFN-β), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid [poly(I:C)].12,18,19 Many of the miR-155 target transcripts identified so far are pro-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory proteins, such as the Fas-associated death domain protein, IκB kinase ε, inositol 5-phosphatase 1 and the suppressor of cytokine signalling-1 (SOCS-1). SOCS-1 belongs to a family RG7204 concentration of proteins known to regulate the response

of immune cells to cytokines and other inflammatory stimuli, such as LPS, through direct inhibition of the Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK) and consequent inhibition of signal transducer and activator of transcription factors (STAT), as a ‘classical’ negative feedback loop. In addition, the C-terminal SOCS box domain interacts with components of the ubiquitin ligase system and mediates proteasomal degradation of associated proteins, including key elements of other pro-inflammatory pathways, such as the nuclear

factor-κB and Jun N-terminal kinase pathways. Experimental evidence suggests that miR-155 plays a pro-inflammatory role and may be implicated in chronic inflammatory processes, such as those Histone demethylase contributing to cancer and to certain neurodegenerative diseases. Given the similarities between microglia and other cells of the immune system, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, where miR-155 has been found to be up-regulated upon activation,20 in this work we investigated the contribution of miRNA-155 to microglia activation and microglia-mediated immune responses. To our knowledge, this is the first study providing evidence that miR-155 has a strong pro-inflammatory role during microglia activation and is required for SOCS-1 post-transcriptional regulation and progression of the immune response in these cells. Moreover, our results suggest that miR-155 inhibition induces neuronal protection from microglia-induced damage, and miR-155 may therefore constitute an interesting and promising target for the control of neuronal inflammation.

g. deranged metabolic homeostasis such as diabetes and hyperlipidemia, as well as in obesity and peripheral artery disease, but has not as yet been studied during smoke exposure in presumably healthy subjects with the scope to study a presumed counteractive effect by https://www.selleckchem.com/screening/chemical-library.html oral antioxidants. In this study, TtP was prolonged after smoking, demonstrating a prompt adverse effect of smoking on the microcirculation, consistent with findings in other studies [19,32,37,73]. However, two weeks of oral treatment with ascorbate significantly reduced TtP (p < 0.002) and also prevented the prolongation of TtP beyond baseline after smoking

(p < 0.03). Treatment with vitamin E had no significant effect on TtP either before or after smoking. Differences between these vitamins have previously been shown and may be an effect of the different solubilities of the two antioxidants [33]. Ascorbate, a potent major water-soluble antioxidant, may scavenge free radicals in the circulation, intercellular fluid, and cytosol. It is also important for the maintenance and regeneration of other antioxidants. Vitamin E, by contrast, is a lipid-soluble micronutrient able to prevent

formation selleck of lipid hydroperoxides and to scavenge peroxynitrite radicals, with a potential to exert its actions within lipoproteins or within the vessel wall. Some previous studies have reported on the positive effects of oral ascorbate treatment on FMD [50,60,64]. It is reasonable to ascribe such an effect to the antioxidative capacity of ascorbate, although this has

not formally been proven. Oral vitamin E has also been reported Cepharanthine to improve FMD [41,44]. However, in animal studies, it has been shown that supplementing the diet of hamsters with vitamin C prevented microcirculatory dysfunction when subsequently exposed to cigarette smoke, but that no such inhibitory effect was observed with vitamin E [33]. Overall, the reported results of treatment with antioxidants have been variable in the literature and the majority of studies with positive results used acute administration of supraphysiological doses [20,25,34,42]. It is thus of interest to study the in vivo effects of more clinically relevant doses [65] as in this study after a period of moderately increased circulating antioxidative micronutrients and moderate doses of vitamin E with less concerns for potential adverse effects [5]. In the present study, the experimental setting entails an expected demand for immediate available antioxidative response capacity due to the fast exposure to reactive oxygen species during inhalation of cigarette smoke. Effects of oral antioxidants is of particular interest with regard to the microvascular response in view of the reported low circulating levels of antioxidants in smokers [1,53,68], possibly reflecting increased consumption and thus a potential for beneficial replenishment.

05; Fig. 5). Collectively, there were fewer Th2-promoting cytokine cells (IL-4) than Th1-promoting cytokine cells (IFN-γ). In our previous

study, we developed surface-displayed ApxIIA#5 expressed on S. cerevisiae and full ApxIIA-expressing S. cerevisiae and demonstrated that oral immunization of mice induced antigen-specific immune responses and protection against A. pleuropneumoniae [3, 9]. However, to develop an efficient oral vaccine, further study of the mucosal immune responses induced by transgenic S. cerevisiae was needed. We selected surface-displayed ApxIIA#5 expressed on S. cerevisiae as an oral vaccine for porcine pleuropneumonia. In mice, it has greater specific antibody activities Alvelestat chemical structure than other yeasts, including ApxIIA#5-secreting S. cerevisiae and full-ApxIIA expressing S. cerevisiae [20]. As APCs, DCs induce primary immune responses and have a key role in both innate and adaptive immunity [21]. In adaptive immune responses, the phenotype and function of DCs determine the initiation of tolerance, memory and polarized Th1 and Th2 differentiation [21]. Stimulation of bone marrow-derived DCs with surface-displayed ApxIIA#5

expressed on S. cerevisiae in vitro indicated that this could generally induce secretion Selleckchem ICG-001 of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β, the Th1-inducing cytokine IL-12p70 and the Th2-inducing cytokine IL-10. Moreover, maturation of the APCs was confirmed by showing upregulation of CD40 and CD86 costimulatory molecules and surface MHC class II, all of which are required

for efficient stimulation of T cells [22]. Mucosal protection requires generation of antigen-specific T cells and antibodies [23]. In addition, following ablation of immune responses after oral and nasal immunization of mice depleted of cDCs in vivo, cDCs are reportedly essential for activation of CD4+ T cells and generation of specific antibodies [23]. In the present study, we demonstrated that surface-displayed ApxIIA#5 expressed on S. cerevisiae helped to improve both systemic and mucosal immune responses in mice by generating antigen-specific antibodies and encouraging proliferation of CD4+ T cells, which were stimulated by DCs activated by oral vaccination. Presentation of ApxIIA on activated DCs to CD4+ T cells from mice in the many vaccinated group elicited specific T-cell proliferation. The induction of ApxIIA-specific T-cell proliferation demonstrated that ApxIIA was indeed presented on DCs and that the orally administered surface-displayed ApxIIA#5 expressed on S. cerevisiae induced cellular immune responses in mice. Both serum Ag-specific IgG and Ag-specific IgA antibody activities increased in the vaccinated group. Furthermore, both Apx-specific IgG and IgA antibody-producing cells in the PP, LP and SP were significantly more numerous in the vaccinated group than in the control group.

However, it does not decrease further during postnatal development. The example of the slope of the logarithmic regression line for detail (N) and scale (ε) is presented in Figure 3. As with DB, similar results in terms of complexity reduction were obtained after application of smoothing filter. Average smoothed DB(small) was 1.560 ± 0.021 for newborn mice, 1.529 ± 0.022 for mice aged 10 days, 1.526 ± 0.024 for mice aged 20 days and 1.509 ± 0.022 for animals aged 30 days (Fig. 4). Statistically highly significant difference was detected between the groups (F = 6.91, P < 0.001)

and after post-hoc analysis, fractal dimension in animals aged 10 days, 20 days and 30 days was significantly lower (P < 0.05, P < 0.01 and P < 0.001) when compared to controls (Fig. 4). Similarly as with Ferroptosis cancer DB, there was no statistically significant difference (P > 0.05) Saracatinib chemical structure between animals aged 10 days and 20 days, 10 days and 30 days, or between 20 days and 30 days. The average smoothed DB(biggest) for newborn mice was 1.452 ± 0.020 and in older animals the dimension (1.417 ± 0.024, 1.412 ± 0.034 and 1.386 ± 0.029 for animals aged 10 days, 20 days and 30 days, respectively, Fig. 4) was significantly lower (P < 0.05, P < 0.05 and P < 0.001, respectively). There was no statistically

significant difference (P > 0.05) between animals aged 10 days and 20 days, 10 days and 30 days, or between 20 days and 30 days. Dipeptidyl peptidase These results indicate a loss of MDC chromatin complexity immediately after birth, with fractal dimension values remaining low in older animals. Average lacunarity of chromatin structure was 1.354 ± 0.064

in newborn mice. In 10-day-old animals average lacunarity increased (1.452 ± 0.129); however, the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Lacunarity increased further in older animals (in mice aged 20 days 1.476 ± 0.069) and the increase became statistically significant in mice aged 30 days (compared with newborn animals, 1.481 ± 0.075, P < 0.05, Table 1). There was no statistically significant difference in any other group pairs (10 days vs 20 days; 20 days vs 30 days, Fig. 5). In Table 2, P-values for trends are presented for DB, DB(small), DB(biggest), lacunarity, ASM and IDM. Statistically significant trend between the age groups was detected in DB, DB(small), DB(biggest) and lacunarity. When we compared the values of fractal dimension and lacunarity for individual chromatin structures, we found statistically significant negative correlation between these two parameters in all four age groups (Fig. 6). The strongest correlation was observed in the group of newborn mice and mice aged 30 days (Fig. 6A,D, P < 0.0001, R = −0.45, n = 160). The plotted values of fractal dimension and lacunarity for each age group can be seen in Figure 6. These results indicate that the values of chromatin fractal dimension decreases as the chromatin lacunarity increases and vice versa.

(2004). However, the distinctive mushroom-like structure, commonly described in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms (Davies et al., 1998), was never observed. In contrast, bacterial aggregates were found either adherent to the ETT lumen or within the overlying secretions through SEM (Fig. 7). We found that systemic treatment with linezolid decreases bacterial survival ratio within ETT by direct quantitative assessment through CLSM. However, bacterial eradication

was not achieved, selleck products indicating insufficient bactericidal effect inside the biofilm likely due to both the intrinsic resistance of biofilms to antimicrobials (Mah & O’Toole, 2001; Stewart & Costerton, 2001) and the impaired distribution of antimicrobials inside the ETT (Fernández-Barat et al., 2011). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating bacterial aggregates, within the ETT, adherent and non-attached at the ETT surface, as clearly depicted in Fig. 7. It could be argued that the structures seen in the ETTs of our animal model were bacterial aggregates, not producing biofilm, and totally embedded within respiratory mucus. Indeed, in this model, it is challenging to distinguish Cobimetinib between respiratory mucus and MRSA biofilm, because MRSA biomatrix mainly consists

of N-acetyl glucosamine (O’Gara, 2007) that is virtually indistinguishable from human mucus (Voynow & Rubin, 2009). However, the results on biofilm-forming capability between MRSA isolated from within the tube and MRSA to originally challenge the animals clearly imply that MRSA within the ETT was actively very forming biofilm (Fig. 2). Furthermore, bacterial aggregates in our samples

undoubtedly meet all the criteria established to define biofilm clusters (Parsek & Singh, 2003). The use of CLSM to qualitatively assess bacterial biofilm within ETT has substantially increased over the years (Perkins et al., 2004). In particular, CLSM has been commonly applied to assess efficacy of silver-coated ETT (Olson et al., 2002; Berra et al., 2008; Kollef et al., 2008; Rello et al., 2010), or novel devices designed to mechanically disrupt ETT biofilm (Berra et al., 2006, 2012). Nevertheless, quantitative CLSM assessment of ETT biofilm viability has never been reported, neither were used enhanced methods to clearly distinguish bacteria within the biofilm matrix inside ETT, which is important in terms of reproducibility. In our studies, an additional advantage of the use of CLSM was the capability to measure the total amount of bacteria within the biofilm irrespective of whether they were alive or dead. These assessments are clearly impossible to obtain through standard bacterial culture and relate to both antimicrobial efficacy and length of mechanical ventilation. Interestingly, we found more biofilm in ETTs retrieved from treated animals.

Transendothelial migration experiments were performed as described previously 18. In brief, 3.0-μm pore polyester membrane transwell inserts (Corning) were coated with 100 μg/mL fibronectin and 400 μg/mL collagen type IV (Sigma-Aldrich) for 30–60 min before 1.5×105 HBMEC were added. 500 IU/mL TNF-α and 500 IU/mL IFN-γ (R&D, Minneapolis, MN, USA) were added to the lower compartment 4 h after the addition of HBMEC for some experiments. Incubation time for the endothelial monolayer was carefully titrated according to confluence and firm intraendothelial adhesion, determined

by immunohistochemical stainings of the tight junction protein occludin, and the electrical resistance of the Sorafenib order endothelial monolayer (TEER). PBMC or CD4+ T cells were seeded onto the confluent BMEC monolayer 16 h after activation of the endothelium and the PLX-4720 cost T-cell phenotypes in the lower compartment

were analyzed after a 12-h incubation time. Human PBMC were isolated by centrifugation of donor blood on a Lymphoprep (Fresenius Kabi Norge AS) density gradient. To allow comparative analysis of cells from patients with RR-MS and healthy controls, PBMC were immediately cryopreserved and stored in liquid nitrogen. Human CD4+CD25high Treg were isolated using MACS technology (Miltenyi) according to the supplier’s manual. Cells were washed twice in PBS containing 0.1% sodium azide and 1% bovine serum albumin and incubated for 30 min with monoclonal antibodies for different T-cell surface antigens. The following anti-human monoclonal antibodies were used (all fluorochrome-conjugated): anti-CD4 (SK3), (BD Biosciences),

anti-CD4 (M-T466) (Ebioscience) and anti-VCAM-1 (1G11B1) (Abcam). The respective isotype controls (mouse IgG1, rat IgG2a, mouse IgG1) were purchased from BD Biosciences. Intracellular staining using anti-human and anti-murine-Foxp3 (clones PCH101 and FJK-16s, respectively) antibodies were performed using Foxp3 staining kits (Ebiosciences) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. AntiCD4 (RM4-5), anti-CD44 (IM7), anti-CD73 (TY-11-8), anti-CD62L (MEL-14), anti-CD69 (H1.2F3), anti LFA-1 (2D7), anti-CCR5 (C34-3448), anti-CCR7 (150503), anti-CD49d (9C10) (BD Biosciences), anti-CCR6 (140706) (R&D), anti CD49a (804) (Serotec) and anti-CD49f (GoH3) (Biolegend) RVX-208 monoclonal antibodies were used for flow cytometry of murine T cells. Data were acquired on a FACSCalibur flow cytometer (BD) and analyzed using FlowJo software 7.5 (Tree Star). HBMEC cultures were fixed at different incubation time points with 4% paraformaldehyde, blocked with 30% donkey serum (PAA) for 60 min, incubated with goat-anti-human ICAM-1 (British Biotechnology) for 1 h and subsequently stained with donkey-anti-goat Cy2 (Dianova) for another 60 min. Cover slips for migration analysis were coated with 20 μg/mL laminin (Sigma-Aldrich (after precoating with 10 μg/mL poly-D-lysine (Sigma-Aldrich)) and were transferred to migration chambers.