from age matched non aneurysmal abdominal aorta may be a superior com parator, in the current study customer reviews this was not a feasible option and thus a limitation. Loss of aortic SMC through apoptosis is a prominent fea ture of AAA disease. The similarity in basal apoptosis we observed between aneurysmal and non aneurysmal SMC concurs with a previous report where no differences were observed between AAA and matched inferior mesen teric artery SMC cultured under standard conditions. However, we noted significantly augmented apoptosis in AAA SMC upon e posure to staurosporine. It is conceiv able that in AAA disease, SMC apoptosis in vivo may be at tributable to a heightened sensitivity to apoptotic stimuli in a significant proinflammatory environment, rather than a difference in basal apoptosis levels.

Accelerated vascular aging, cell senescence and syn thetic SMC phenotypes have been documented in AAA patients or those with risk factors for AAA. Another common feature of aged cells is that of telo mere shortening and this has been demonstrated in both AAA SMC and leucocytes of patients with AAA. Rhomboid SMC are more commonly reported in pathological states and there is speculation that aging causes a general switch towards a synthetic phenotype in vascular SMC. Aging has been demonstrated to alter SMC proliferation in a variety of ways depending on source and model, and also to modulate the prolifer ative response to growth factors or cytokines. In keeping with this concept, we also noted differential sen escence between PCA vehicle treated and CCE SMC, and likewise between human SV and AAA SMC.

It is reasonable to suggest that the SMC phenotypes we iden tify in both the human AAA and porcine CCE are indi cative of accelerated aging. Another defining feature of end stage AAA disease is breakdown of the ECM, with marked degradation of elastin fibres. In addition, collagenase activity is ele vated in AAA tissue. Evidence from pathological specimens suggests that loss of elastin is an early event mediated by SMC and is associated with production of MMP 2 from SMC themselves. Elevated e pression levels of both MMP 2 mRNA and protein have been reported in human and animal AAA tissue. The observed deficiencies in PCA SMC morphology and proliferation after CCE treatment were Carfilzomib also evident at the level of MMP 2 secretion in which we observed, contrary to previous reports, that both basal and phorbol ester stimulated secretion of MMP 2 from CCE SMC was significantly lower than from VEH SMC.

The unpaired nature of AAA SMC and SV SMC precluded a direct comparison between them although we noted that absolute levels of MMP 2 secretion from AAA SMC were consistently selleck chem Volasertib lower than from equivalent densities of SV SMC under identical conditions. Inter estingly, a study using tissue biopsies from the UK Small Aneurysm Trial concluded that MMP 2 may only play an etiopathogenic role in small aneurysms and moreover, significant quantities were bound to the ECM. MMP 2 may actually

with DMSO. In addition, the production of granzyme b and IFN by NK cells from normal donors when cultured with the K562 target cell line was not adversely affected in the presence of FLLL32. The mean difference for granzyme b was 41. 0 spots well and 65 spots well for IFN. Discussion We have characterized the biologic activity of the cur cumin analog, FLLL32 selleck chem on melanoma and immune effec tor cells. The present study has demonstrated that the FLLL32 small molecule can inhibit STAT3 signal trans duction and induce caspase dependent, pro apoptotic effects against human melanoma cell lines and primary melanoma cultures at micromolar concentrations. In contrast to curcumin and other STAT3 pathway inhibi tors, IFN induced STAT1 phosphorylation was not altered in the presence of FLLL32.

This compound did not inhibit the viability of PBMCs, NK cells or their cellu lar responsiveness to clinically relevant cytokines. These data show that FLLL32 represents a novel small molecule curcumin analog with STAT3 pathway specificity that will be considered as a lead compound for further drug development in melanoma. FLLL32 represents a structural analog of curcumin when locked into its diketone tautomeric form. A num ber of favorable biologic properties resulting from these modifications have been characterized in this study. First, FLLL32 was ten fold more potent than curcumin at inducing apoptosis of melanoma cells. Second, FLLL32 did not appear to have to ic effects on either nor mal PBMCs or NK cells. Third, FLLL32 was designed to specifically target the oncogenic STAT3 pathway, while leaving the STAT1 pathway intact.

Data from the present report indicate that in terms of in vitro specificity, FLLL32 was superior to other STAT3 pathway inhibitors or to curcumin. In fact, prior studies from our group have demonstrated that curcumin inhibited the phosphoryla tion of numerous STAT proteins in response to clinically relevant cytokines including IFN, IFN and IL 2. These inhibitory effects of curcumin were observed in both melanoma cell GSK-3 lines and in PBMCs from healthy donors. As a result, design of the FLLL32 analog was focused on ma imizing the target specificity for STAT3 over other STAT proteins. The present data support the STAT3 specificity of the FLLL32 lead compound, although they do not conclusively e clude that FLLL32 could modulate the phosphorylation of other unidentified kinases.

Numerous early generation small molecule STAT3 inhibitors have been reported to induce apoptosis via inhibi tion of STAT3 activation and or dimerization, while siRNA specific for the SH2 coding region of STAT3 could induce apoptosis selleck screening library in prostate cancer cells in vitro and in nude mice bearing human enograft tumors. Finally, studies have also shown that platinum comple es can promote anti tumor activity by virtue of their ability to inhibit STAT3. Collectively, these studies provide precedent for targeting STAT3 as a means of inducing tumor cell apoptosis. However, the specificity

e appropriate fractions. PF-01367338 These factors were calculated by integrating the A280 values from the polysome tracings for the appropriate fractions from multiple independent experiments on WT and mutant extracts, yielding the following average values, HPWT 0. 308, HP4G 0. 114, LPWT 0. 276, LP4G 0. 149, 80SWT 0. 416, 80S4G 0. 738. Cisplatin is an effective antitumor agent widely used for the treatment of different tumor types. In spite of the efficacy, the curative poten tial of such an antitumor drug is limited by the occurrence of resistance. Most information about genetic alterations and cellular mechanisms contributing to drug response resistance comes from mammalian cell systems. Several mechanisms of resistance to cisplatin have been described including reduced drug accumulation, enhanced repair and increased expression of defence factors.

Some lines of evidence support the concept that altered expression of sub sets of genes may be important in determining the sensitiv ity resistance to antitumor agents including cisplatin. Given the powerful molecular tools now available, the com bination of molecular pharmacology and molecular biology approaches in studying model organisms could lead to a rapid progress in the discovery of strategies to overcome drug resistance. The ease by which yeast can be manipulated together with similarities of yeast cells to cells of more com plex metazoans makes many yeast species, very attractive models for the investigation of conserved evolutionary processes occurring in eukaryotes.

Using DNA microarrays, we previously found that in fission yeast cisplatin activates a stress response involving various gene groups. In particu lar, among the transcripts up regulated by cisplatin in the sensitive strain, several genes belonging to the ubiquitin proteasome pathway were identified. The Ub proteasome pathway is implicated in the regula tion of a variety of cellular functions and plays a major role in stress response. In fact, by GSK-3 degrading misfolded and damaged proteins, the pathway controls processes includ ing cell cycle, cell death and DNA repair. The protea some recognizes ubiquitinated substrates through its Ub receptors and digest them into peptides and free Ubs. The pathway includes Ub activating enzymes, Ub conju gating enzymes and Ub ligases, all acting in con cert to tag substrates with Ub chains.

Proteins may be monoubiquitinated or the Ub monomer may act as a point of attachment for additional Ub monomers, result ing in polyubiquitination. The specific biological selleck chem Vismodegib signal mediated by a polyubiquitin chain is determined, in part, by the chain topology, which is assigned by the Ub lysine residue used for chain extension. Lys48 linked chains have been implicated in targeting proteins for proteasomal degradation, whereas Lys63 linked chains seem to regulate proteins involved in a wide range of processes, including DNA repair, mRNA translation and endocytosis. Indeed, the Ub proteasome system is known to regulate the

from each treat ment group, 10 plants were collected and mixed, to minimize the effect of transcriptome unevenness http://www.selleckchem.com/products/chir-99021-ct99021-hcl.html among plants. mRNA sequencing Total RNA was extracted by using an RNeasy Plant kit. RNA quality was calculated with a Bioanalyzer 2100 algorithm, high quality RNA was used. Total RNA samples were subjected to cDNA con struction for Illumina sequencing, in accordance with the protocol for the mRNA Seq sample preparation kit. Oligo magnetic beads were used to isolate poly RNA from the total RNA samples. The mRNA was fragmented by heating at 94 C for 5 min. First strand cDNA was synthesized using random hexamer primers for 10 min at 25 C, 50 min at 42 C, and 15 min at 70 C. After the first strand had been synthesized, dNTPs, RNaseH, and DNA polymerase I were added to synthesize second strand DNA for 2.

5 h at 16 C. The ends of double stranded cDNA were repaired by using T4 DNA polymerase and Klenow DNA polymerase and phosphorylated by using T4 polynucleotide kinase. A single A base was added to the cDNA molecules by using Klenow exo nuclease, and the fragments were ligated to the PE adapters. cDNAs with 200 25 bp fragments were collected. The purified cDNA was amplified by 15 cycles of PCR for 10 s at 98 C, 30 s at 65 C, and 30 s at 72 C using PE1. 0 and PE2. 0 primers. Mapping of short reads, detection of bridging sequences, and prediction of transcripts For each sample, cDNA was sequenced by an Illumina Genome Analyzer II. Data on nine technical replicates were accumulated for Fig ure 1. Data on four technical replicates were summed for Table 1.

In our preliminary experiment, two independent sequen cing runs using the same cDNA were highly correlated. The default Illumina pipeline quality filter, which uses a threshold of CHASTITY 0. 6, was used to identify clusters with low signal to noise ratios. CHASTITY is defined as the ratio of the highest of the four intensities to the sum of the highest Anacetrapib two. Passed filter reads were mapped onto both the Nipponbare reference genome and the spliced exon junction sequences by SOAP ver. 1. 11, allowing up to 2 bp of mismatch or up to 3 bp of indels. SEJ sequences were constructed by conca tenating the 40 bases at the 3 end of the upstream exon to the 40 bases at the 5 end of the downstream exon for all RAP2 transcripts at a locus. To calculate the cumulative coverage of the genome or annotated regions, reads were mapped by BWA with the default option.

To predict transcripts, a series of Tipifarnib cancer programs Bowtie, TopHat, and Cufflinks was used. Briefly, mRNA Seq reads were mapped against the whole reference genome by using Bowtie software. An initial consensus of exon sequences was extracted from the mapped reads. The reads that did not align to the genome but that were mapped to these potential junctions by TopHat were considered to bridge splice junctions. Cufflinks constructs gene models on the basis of the exons and brid ging sequences predicted by Bowtie and TopHat. ORFs were predicted by BLASTX search

cle progression and amino acid metabolism and a large num ber of changes in host immune defences. For the F4ac ETEC infection, the responses of the host cells were characterized by great up regulations on selleck products immune, wound ing and inflammatory response. The findings herein pro vided a solid proof why ETEC with F4 may be more virulent compared to F18 which seems to elicit milder effects, which further characterized and defined the gen etic mechanisms of responses to different ETEC colonization and adhesion in small intestine of piglets. Materials and Methods Cell culture The IPEC J2 cell line was grown in Dulbeccos modified eagle medium Hams F 12 medium supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum and was maintained in a 95% air 5% CO2 humidified atmosphere at 37 C, which were free of mycoplasma contamination.

Bacterial strains F4ab ETEC strain 195 and F4ac ETEC strain 200 were removed from cryo storage and cultured in Ordin ary Broth Agar at 37 C for three generations. ETEC strain 8813 was cultured in static Tryp tone Soya Agar medium at 37 C for 24 h, and then in static Tryptone Soya Broth medium at 37 C for two generations. For cell infection experiment, the E. coli strains were subcultured in shaking LB and TSB medium, respectively, at 37 C for 12 h, then centrifuged and washed with sterile PBS. Finally the bacterial suspension was prepared in PBS. Infection of the cell lines Monolayers of cells prepared in 24 well tissue culture plates were washed twice with PBS, then 0. 5 ml of DMEM was added. A total of 20ul of bacterial suspension was used for infection or the same volume of PBS as control.

The cells were incubated at 37 C in a 95% air 5% CO2 air atmosphere for 3 h. The adhesion values of the ETEC strains to IPEC J2 cells were checked by real time PCR with slightly modified procedures described by Candela et al. Twelve samples were prepared including nine with the three ETEC strains infection treatments and three samples as control. Total RNA isolation IPEC J2 cells infected with and without E. coli strains were washed twice with PBS, then lysed with TRIZOL Reagent directly in the culture dishes. Isolation of RNA was performed using TRIZOL Reagent following the manufacturers instructions and checked for a RIN number to inspect the RNA integration by an Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100. Qualified total RNA was further purified by RNeasy micro kit and RNase Free DNase Set.

Sample labeling and hybridization Total RNA was amplified and labelled by Low Input Quick Amp Labeling Kit, One Color, following the manu facturers instructions. The labeled cRNA was purified by RNeasy mini kit, then used for hybridization onto porcine oligo microarray slides containing 43,603 oligonucleotide probes at 65 C for 17 Anacetrapib h. The hybri dized microarray slides were washed according to the manufacturers instructions and were scanned by Agilent Microarray Scanner at 5 mm resolution. Raw data selleck compound were normalized by Quantile algorithm, Gene Spring Soft ware 11. 0. Microarray data analysis

Age-adjusted means for carotid artery intima-media thickness and elasticity indices were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with Volasertib buy glucose tolerance status in both sexes. There was a trend of increasing early atherosclerosis with the worsening of glucose tolerance in men and women. These associations were weakened in both sexes after further adjustments for other cardiovascular risk factors. In women, but not in men, significant (P < 0.05) associations between glucose tolerance status and carotid artery elasticity were seen even after these further adjustments. Diabetes and non-diabetic glucose intolerance are associated with increased early carotid atherosclerosis compared with normal glucose tolerance in both sexes. Our results suggest that women with glucose intolerance may be in greater risk than men.

We recently reported that the administration of miglitol alone just before breakfast improved postprandial hyperglycemia and increased active glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) levels after lunch in men without diabetes. Miglitol and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, such as sitagliptin, enhance plasma active GLP-1 concentrations via different mechanisms; therefore, combined therapy with these agents was more effective than monotherapy. In this study, we compared the effectiveness of the administration of miglitol alone just before breakfast on the plasma glucose, serum insulin and glucagon, and plasma incretin levels in sitagliptin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes.

We measured the plasma glucose, serum insulin and glucagon, plasma active GLP-1, and total glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide levels before breakfast, at 120 min after breakfast, before lunch, and 60 and 120 min after lunch in patients with diabetes who are receiving sitagliptin. This trial was performed for the following 2 days on each subject (Day 1: no miglitol, Day 2: miglitol alone [50 mg] administered just before breakfast). The area under the curve (AUC) of the plasma glucose levels after lunch in the miglitol-treated group tended to be lower than that in the miglitol-untreated group, but the difference was not statistically significant. Miglitol alone administered at breakfast increased the AUC of the active plasma GLP-1 levels after lunch in sitagliptin-treated patients with diabetes.

Our results suggest that the once-daily administration of miglitol as a “GLP-1 enhancer” in combination with sitagliptin was Brefeldin_A effective for the treatment for patients with diabetes.
Choreoathetosis is a rare neurologic complication of the diabetic disease. The purpose of this case report is to increase selleck chem Imatinib Mesylate the knowledge of such occurrence by describing the case of an elderly woman who was admitted to our institution for an over 20-day history of choreic movement in the left side of the body.

About 84% of the study participants were male subjects; selleck chem therefore, our findings may be more representative for men than women. Copyright (c) 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a rare complication observed after liver transplantation and only a handful of cases have been reported until now. We report a case of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) after liver transplantation in a 50-year-old man. The case presentation was postodontectomy bleeding with an associative abnormal coagulation test 85 months after liver transplantation. A routine blood test, bone marrow test, chromosome analysis and examination of PML/RAR alpha chimeric gene confirmed the diagnosis of APL and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).

Induction chemotherapy with all-trans retinoic acid, arsenic trioxide and daunorubicin was given to this patient and complete remission was achieved. The patient was subjected to DA (daunorubicin combined with cytarabine) and MA (mitoxantrone combined with cytarabine) regimens after remission induction to consolidate the chemotherapy for two courses of treatment, and subsequently subjected to arsenous acid chemotherapy on a periodic basis. Twenty-two months into the follow-up, sustained bone marrow remission was observed with the adapted treatment regimen. Copyright (c) 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel
Introduction: The etiopathogenesis of childhood leukemia is not fully understood. It is suggested that endogenous viral sequences may play a role in leukemogenesis. Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) constitute about 8% of the human genome.

Most HERVs are dysfunctional because of numerous mutations and deletions. Some HERVs, however, contain sequences capable of transcription. In patients with leukemia, the presence of antibodies against HERV-K has been identified, which could suggest increased expression of HERV-K in leukemic cells. To elucidate the role of endogenous retroviruses Brefeldin_A in leukemogenesis, studies were undertaken to assess env gene expression of HERV-K and HERV-W in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Results: This study was performed in 170 children with ALL, 38 subjects with AML, and 30 healthy subjects. Expression of the env gene of HERV-K and HERV-W and the control gene ACTB was studied by real-time PCR using specific oligonucleotide primers and SYBR Green marker.

Env gene expression was assessed on the basis of the absolute threshold-C-t, as well as normalized against ACTB expression and double normalized expression relative to ACTB and reference cells – normal peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL). Env gene both expression of HERV-K normalized against ACTB, as well as double normalized expression relative to ACTB and normal PBL, was significantly higher only in AML. There were no statistically significant differences in env gene expression of HERV-W normalized to ACTB in ALL and AML as compared to normal PBL.

NHBE cells at passages 2 to 4, and 16HBE cells were trypsinized and seeded onto the Costar Transwells inserts with 0. 4 um pore size at a density of 1. 5 �� 105 cells cm2 in media comprised of 50% BEBM and 50% DMEM F12 low glucose supplemented with the growth factors provided in the SingleQuot kits and retinoic acid. Once the cells reached confluency, they were switched to an air selleck Sorafenib liquid interface for an additional 2 weeks to achieve mucociliary differentiation. PCN or IL 13 was added to the Transwell chambers for 24 hr. Sterile water was used as the control. NHBE cells were stained with mouse anti MUC5AC monoclonal antibody, and visualized with Alexa Fluor488 conjugated sec ondary antibodies under a confocal micro scope. Nuclei were stained with DAPI.

Brightfield and fluorescence images of these cells can be found in the Additional file 1, Figure S1 and Additional file 2, Figure S2. ROS assays ROS levels in PCN exposed NCI H292 cells were deter mined using the OxiSelect In Vitro ROS RNS Assay Kit according to the manufacturer protocols. The assay uses the spe cific ROS RNS probe dichlorodihydrofluorescin DiOxyQ. The DCFH DiOxyQ probe is first primed with a quench removal reagent, and subsequently stabilized in the highly reactive DCFH form. ROS and RNS species react with DCFH, which then rapidly oxidizes to to degradation with cell lysates. The amounts of mucins in total cell lysates were determined by west ern blotting using specific antibodies against MUC5AC and MUC5B or by ELISA kits. These ELISA kits have been previously used in mucin studies.

Posttranslational modification of FOXA2 Nuclear proteins from PCN stimulated or control NCI H292 cells were purified using the NE PER Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Extraction Reagents. FOXA2 was immunoprecipitated using anti FOXA2 antibody immobilized on Protein A G Agarose. Posttranslational modifications of FOXA2 were analyzed by western blot using antibodies against nitro tyrosine, acetylated lysine, methylated lysine, and ubiquitin. Neutralization of PCN by GSH NCI H292 cells were pretreated with GSH at indicated concentrations for 60 Cilengitide min before expos the highly fluorescent 2, 7 dichlorodihydrofluorescein. Fluorescence intensity is proportional to the total ROS RNS levels within the sample. The DCFH DiOxyQ probe can react with hydrogen peroxide, peroxyl radical, nitric oxide, and peroxynitrite anion, allowing for measurement of the total free rad ical population within a sample.

Mucin analysis NCI H292 or 16HBE cells were stimulated with indicated concentrations of PCN for 24 hr. Cells were lysed by the M PER Mammalian Protein Extraction Reagent in the presence of the Halt Protease Inhibitor Cocktail. The protease inhibitors were incorporated because of prior selleck chem reports of sensitivity of the anti mucin antibodies ure to PCN or sterile H2O for 24 hr.

The default for BioNetGen is to calculate pseudo canonical labels that do not distinguish all isomorphic graphs but are much faster to generate than selleck chemical HNauty. Then any two graphs which share pseudo canonical labels are checked for iso morphism using Ullmanns algorithm. The genera tion of pseudo canonical labels followed by applying Ullmanns algorithm to graphs with the same label always produces correct results, though it can be much slower than HNauty if a chemical species graph is composed of many isomorphic subgraphs. The HNauty code can be run as stand alone code separate from Bio NetGen. The Python version of HNauty uses the graph structures defined in the freely available package Net workX. The Perl version of HNauty takes as input the graph adjacency matrix together with an initial par tition of the vertices of a graph.

The adjacency matrix should be in the form of a dictionary of dictionaries. The keys of the first dictionary are the vertices of a graph. Each vertex i points to a second dictionary whose keys are the neighbors of vertex i in the graph. In this second dictionary, a vertex j points to an array contain ing the edge types between vertices i and j. The initial partition of the vertices should be given in the form of an array of arrays, each of the smaller arrays being a set in the partition. HNauty returns as output a permutation of the vertices of the input graph. Permuting the input graph under this per mutation gives the canonical label of the graph. Testing Both the Python and Perl versions of HNauty were exten sively checked using a database of isomorphic graphs.

The Perl version was further checked against ran domly generated graphs with two types of edge, directed and undirected. These graphs were generated Entinostat using the Erd?s R��nyi model for random graphs, the edges were chosen independently with uniform probability. Edges were selected to be undirected with probability 0. 1 and directed with probability 0. 05. With probability 0. 85 an edge was not in the graph. One thousand graphs, each on two hundred nodes, were produced in this way. Each was given as input to HNauty and then a random permu tation of the vertices was applied to each graph, the result was also given as input to HNauty. A test was successful if the two isomorphic inputs resulted in the same canoni cal label. All of the tests were successful.

Discussion In the section above, we discussed the significance of our results as the results were presented. Thus, this sec tion will be brief. Hierarchical graphs can be powerful visual aids in understanding complex molecular struc tures. For rule based models of cell signaling systems, hierarchical graphs provide more natural representations http://www.selleckchem.com/products/ABT-263.html of proteins than the regular flat graphs of BNGL or Kappa and thus promote clarity in building and annotat ing models.

Both groups were part of the Human Genome Diversity Project Centre dEtude du Polymorphisme Humain Panel, a collection of lymphoblastoid cell lines from 52 geographically diverse human license with Pfizer populations. In addition to the two populations residing in African tropical forests, we also examined, for compara tive purposes, three other human populations within the HGDP from Africa south of the Sahara. These popula tions, like the Pygmies, exhibit high levels of genetic di versity and low levels of linkage disequilibrium, relative to the non African populations that have been affected by ancestral founder effect during migration out of Africa The three other sub Saharan African popula tions examined were Bantu in Kenya, Mandenka in Senegal, and Yoruba in Nigeria.

Data from the HGDP CEPH panel were not examined for Bantu outside of Kenya or for the San from Namibia, since sample sizes for these groups were small. Individuals identified as relatives were removed from the data set, the final Brefeldin_A dataset contained 91 individuals, including Biaka, Mbuti, Bantu from Kenya, Mandenka and Yoruba. SNP genotypes We used the SNP data for the HGDP CEPH Panel, a dataset containing 938 individuals genotyped on the Illu mina 650 K platform. Using the standardized subset of the HGDP data, genotypes for 644,258 autosomal SNPs were available. Chromosomal positions for the SNPs were provided by the HGDP release for NCBI Human Genome build 36. 1 and map distances in centi morgans were calculated using those positions and recombination estimates provided by the HapMap pro ject phase I II.

Multi locus test of selection To examine the genomes for signatures of selection, we applied a previously validated method that exam ined regions displaying low heterozygosity within popu lations since and or high variance in FST between populations. By favoring one or few haplotypes at the expense of others, selection reduces the overall level of heterozygos ity around a beneficial allele. Thus low heterozygosity in the SNPs surrounding an allele may be a signature of se lection. Furthermore, within a population, as haplotype frequencies shift at a genomic region, some alleles will increase and others will decrease in frequency. In the population undergoing selection, some allele frequencies will become more similar, and other allele frequencies will become less similar, to allele frequencies present in a second population not undergoing selection. Thus be tween two populations relatively high variance of FST for alleles at a genomic region may represent a signature of selection. An algorithm that scanned the genome for regions of low heterozygosity within populations and high variance in FST between populations was run for each pos sible pair of African populations.