03). The calcium oxalate urine relative supersaturation ratio was not significantly different between the 2 groups.

Conclusions: Almost half of patients with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass without a history of nephrolithiasis showed hyperoxaluria or hypocitraturia. This

prevalence was significantly higher than in body mass index matched controls. These risk this website factors were negated by lower urine calcium excretion in patients with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass.”
“Of all the parameters in the deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) in the Parkinson disease (PD) animal models, the selection of the stimulation current intensity is alterable and argumentative to affect the stimulation charge or charge density. In order to observe the different performances among several motor tasks during

the STN-DBS in rats, we observed the behavioral performance during the stimulation with 0, 100, 150 and 200 mu A currents. We found that the DBS efficacy reached the climax during the 200 mu A stimulation at the methamphetamine-induced rotational behavioral test, however at the stepping test and rotarod test, the critical current were 150 mu A to reach the best improvements. Such findings suggest that the stimulation parameters to reach the climax efficacy among the different symptoms are different during the STN-DBS experiments in rats. The appropriate stimulation parameters should be selected by the symptoms separately according to the aim of each study. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights selleck kinase inhibitor reserved.”
“Purpose: We assessed whether allowing spontaneous passage of small fragments is different from complete intraoperative extraction during semirigid ureteroscopy for ureteral stones.

Materials and Methods: A total of 60 patients undergoing ureteroscopy and holmium laser lithotripsy were randomized to intraoperative

fragment retrieval (group 1) or exhaustive lithotripsy and spontaneous fragment expulsion (group 2). The primary outcome was differences Dapagliflozin in unplanned medical and emergency room visits. Other outcomes were the rehospitalization, pain analgesia, time to complete recovery and 30-day stone-free rates.

Results: Patients in group 1 were younger (47 vs 54 years, p = 0.05). Other characteristics, including stone burden and site, presentation mode, and ureteral dilation and stent placement rates, did not differ between the groups. Group 2 patients had a higher rate of unplanned visits (3% vs 30%, OR 12.4, 95% Cl 1.8-80.3, p = 0.01), a trend toward higher rates of rehospitalization (0% vs 10%, p = 0.24) and the need for ancillary treatment (0% vs 7%, p = 0.49), and a lower stone-free rate (100% vs 87%, p = 0.1). Complications developed in 1 group 1 patient and in 2 in group 2, including 2 with postoperative fever and 1 with mucosal undermining of the guidewire.

Microfluorimetric Ca2+ imaging in neurons of identified cortical layers using Calcium Green revealed the functional expression of check details GABA(A) and GABA(C) receptors in the intermediate zone, while only GABA(A) receptor mediated responses were observed in the upper cortical plate. In summary, these results demonstrate that activation

of GABA(C) receptors is a prerequisite for accurate migration and that GABA(C) receptors are functionally expressed in the intermediate zone. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane is mediated by the SNARE (soluble NSF attachment receptor) proteins and is regulated by synaptotagmin (syt). There are at least 17 syt isoforms that have the potential to act as modulators

of membrane fusion events. Synaptotagmin IV (syt IV) is particularly interesting; it is an immediate early gene that is regulated by seizures and certain classes of drugs, and, in humans, syt IV maps to a region of chromosome 18 associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disease. Syt IV has recently been found to localize to dense core vesicles in hippocampal neurons, where it regulates neurotrophin release. Here we have examined the ultrastructure of cultured hippocampal neurons from wild-type and syt IV -/- mice using electron tomography. Perhaps surprisingly, we observed a potential synaptic vesicle transport defect in syt IV -/- neurons, with the accumulation of

large numbers of small clear vesicles (putative selleckchem axonal transport vesicles) near the trans-Golgi network. We also found an interaction between syt IV and KIF1A, a kinesin known to be involved in vesicle trafficking to the synapse. Finally, we found that syt IV -/- synapses exhibited reduced numbers of synaptic vesicles and a twofold reduction in the proportion of docked vesicles compared to wild-type. The proportion of docked vesicles in syt IV -/- boutons was further reduced, 5-fold, following depolarization. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Progesterone All rights reserved.”
“Haloperidol exerts its therapeutic effects basically by acting on dopamine receptors. We previously reported that haloperidol inhibits cholesterol biosynthesis in cultured cells. In the present work we investigated its effects on lipidraft composition and functionality. In both neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y and promyelocytic HL-60 human cell lines, haloperidol inhibited cholesterol biosynthesis resulting in a decrease of the cell cholesterol content and the accumulation of different sterol intermediates (7-dehydrocholesterol, zymostenol and cholesta-8,14-dien-3 beta-ol) depending on the dose of the drug. As a consequence, the cholesterol content in lipid rafts was greatly reduced, and several pre-cholesterol sterols, particularly cholesta-8,14-dien-3 beta-ol, were incorporated into the cell membrane.

However, it is unknown if such treatment modulates 5-HT-induced vasospasm in vein grafts, and if so, what the underlying mechanisms are.

Methods: Male rabbits were divided into two groups: a control group and an SH-treated Lapatinib purchase group. The jugular vein was interposed in the carotid artery in reversed fashion. Isometric tension was examined using vein grafts after 4 weeks. 5-HT(10(-8)-10(-6) M)-induced contraction was obtained in each group in the absence or presence of the NO synthase inhibitor 1-N-G-nitroarginine (L-NNA). The expression of 5-HT2A and 5-HT1B receptors was examined immunohistochemically.

Results:

The 5-HT induced a concentration-dependent contractions in both groups. L-NNA did not significantly modify the 5-HT-induced contraction in the control group but enhanced it in the SH group. The 5-HT1B receptor antagonist GR55562 inhibited the 5-HT-induced contraction in the control group, while it increased the sensitivity of contraction to 5-HT in the SH-treated group in the absence (but not in the presence) Of L-NNA. positive immunoreactivities against 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors were identified in endothelial and medial regions STI571 cell line of vein grafts in both groups, and the expression of 5-HT2A receptors (but not 5-HT1B receptors) was significantly less in the SH-treated group than in the control group.

Conclusion: Chronically administered SH to rabbits

upregulates the autoinhibitory mechanism by 5-HT through a release of NO from endothelium via an activation of endothelial 5-HT1B receptors, thus attenuating its own contraction in vein grafts. Furthermore, such SH treatment downregulates the expression of smooth muscle 5-HT2A receptors, thus further attenuating the 5-HT-induced contraction. These novel findings further support the clinical usefulness Maltase of SH in vein graft spasm after bypass grafting. (Vasc Surg 2009;50:617-25.)”
“OBJECTIVE: Aneurysms that arise from a small branch of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) are very rare. All reported PICA

branch aneurysms originated from the choroidal branches or PICA communicating branches. No aneurysms of the PICA medullary branch have been reported previously.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION: A 62-year-old woman presented with a subarachnoid hemorrhage and intraventricular hemorrhage. Angiography showed a globular-shaped aneurysm arising from an aberrant branch of the anterior medullary segment of the left PICA. At the time of operation, the arterial branch was found to send some perforators into to the medulla oblongata and cervical spinal cord.

INTERVENTION: Aneurysm trapping was performed. Postoperatively, the patient had a mild transient difficulty in swallowing that may have been caused by manipulation of the vagus nerve rootlets.

CONCLUSION: Aneurysms can develop from a proximal medullary branch of the PICA and lead to subarachnoid hemorrhage and intraventricular hemorrhage.

Results: There were no demographic differences between the two groups

of patients. Hypogastric artery occlusion was successful in all cases when a nitinol vascular plug was used. When coils were used, there was one unsuccessful embolization which required a second procedure. The number of embolic devices used in the coil group was 7.53 (range, three to 13) compared with 1.35 (range, one to six) in the Plug group (P < .05). Only one plug was used see more in 19 of 23 cases. The average cost to embolize per hypogastric artery was $1,496 compared with $470 when a nitinol plug was used. There were two instances of coil migration. No other intraoperative complications occurred. At one month follow tip, seven patients (35%) in the coil group complained

Of buttock claudication compared with two patients (9%) in the nitinol plug group (P = .027).

Conclusion: Our experience demonstrates the safety and effectiveness of the nitinol vascular plug for hypogastric artery occlusion during EVAR. When compared with coils for hypogastric embolization during EVAR, nitinol vascular plugs are less expensive, produce less technical complications, and are associated with a significantly lower incidence of gluteal claudication. (J Vasc Surg 2008;48:1121-4.)”
“The dopaminergic system in the brain plays a critical role in nicotine addiction. Genetic variants in the dopaminergic system, including those in dopamine GSK1904529A price receptor genes, represent plausible candidates for the genetic study of nicotine dependence (ND). We investigated various polymorphisms in the dopamine D(2) receptor gene (DRD2) and its neighboring ankyrin repeats and kinase domain containing 1 gene (ANKK1) to determine whether they were associated with ND. We examined 16 single nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs) at DRD2 and 7 SNPs at ANKK1 in our Mid-South Tobacco

Family cohort, which consisted of 2037 participants representing two distinct American populations. Several SNPs (rs7131056, rs4274224, rs4648318, and rs6278) in DRD2, along with the Taq IA polymorphism (rs1800497) in ANKK1, revealed initial significant associations with ND in European Americans, but not after correction for multiple testing, Depsipeptide in vitro indicating a weak association of DRD2 with ND. In contrast, associations for ANKK1 with ND in the African-American and pooled samples, specifically for SNP rs2734849, remained significant after correction. With a non-synonymous G to A transition, rs2734849 produces an amino-acid change ( arginine to histidine) in C-terminal ankyrin repeat domain of ANKK1. Using the luciferase reporter assay, we further demonstrated that the variant alters expression level of NF-kappa B-regulated genes. Since DRD2 expression is regulated by transcription factor NF-kappa B, we suspect that rs2734849 may indirectly affect dopamine D2 receptor density.

“
“For many years primary alclosteronism was considered a relatively benign form of hypertension. This assumption reflects the primacy accorded to elevated levels of angiotensin in terms of deleterious cardiovascular effects, and

the fact that in primary aldosteronism renin and angiotensin levels are low. We now know that primary aldosteronism causes a constellation of cardiovascular, renal and metabolic sequelae which make it far from benign and that these are not merely effects of blood pressure elevation. In primary aldosteronism, tissue damage, on several indices, is higher than in age-, sex- and blood pressure-matched controls, reflecting the ability of inappropriately elevated aldosterone for salt status to produce structural and functional changes Epigenetics inhibitor WZB117 price over and above those produced by high blood pressure.”
“Substantial changes are needed to achieve a more targeted and strategic approach to investment in the response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic that will yield long-term dividends. Until now, advocacy for resources has been done on the basis of a commodity approach that encouraged scaling up of numerous strategies in parallel, irrespective of their relative effects. We propose a strategic investment framework that is intended to support better management of national and international HIV/AIDS responses

than exists with the present system. Our framework incorporates major efficiency gains through community mobilisation, synergies between programme elements, and benefits of the extension of antiretroviral therapy for prevention of HIV transmission. It Tideglusib proposes three categories of investment, consisting of six basic programmatic activities, interventions that create an enabling environment to achieve maximum effectiveness, and programmatic efforts in other

health and development sectors related to HIV/AIDS. The yearly cost of achievement of universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care, and support by 2015 is estimated at no less than US$22 billion. Implementation of the new investment framework would avert 12.2 million new HIV infections and 7.4 million deaths from AIDS between 2011 and 2020 compared with continuation of present approaches, and result in 29.4 million life-years gained. The framework is cost effective at $1060 per life-year gained, and the additional investment proposed would be largely offset from savings in treatment costs alone.”
“Learning can be severely impaired as a consequence of exposure to environmental pollutants. Vanadium (V), a metalloid which is widely distributed in the environment, has been shown to exert toxic effects on a variety of biological systems including the nervous system. However, studies exploring the impact of vanadium on learning are limited.

(C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“We report the case of an English-speaking aphasic patient (JP) with left posterior-frontal damage affecting the inferior frontal and precentral gyri. In speaking, Sotrastaurin cost JP was impaired with the regular inflections of nouns and pseudonouns, making errors like “”pears”" instead of pear or “”door”" for doors, while the spoken production of noun stems and irregularly inflected nouns (teeth) was preserved. JP’s

noun inflection errors stemmed from problems with inflection selection rather than a lack of understanding of concept numerosity or phonological deficit. Evidence that inflection deficits occur independently of semantic and phonological impairments supports accounts that propose dedicated neural substrates for morphological processes and raises a challenge for connectionist models

that do not incorporate specific mechanisms for morphology. JP’s selleck chemicals results also demonstrated a lexical deficit selectively affecting the retrieval of verb stems and a more severe impairment for verb vs. noun inflections. JP’s verb production deficit suggests a close interaction between inflectional and lexical processes probably reflecting the fact that English inflection choice in part depends on stem information stored in the lexicon. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“This paper considers the evolution of phenotypic traits in a community comprising the populations of predators buy HA-1077 and prey subject to Allee effect. The evolutionary model is constructed from a deterministic approximation of the stochastic process of mutation and selection. Firstly, we investigate the ecological and evolutionary conditions that allow for continuously stable strategy and evolutionary branching. We find that the strong Allee effect of prey facilitates the formation

of continuously stable strategy in the case that prey population undergoes evolutionary branching if the Allee effect of prey is not strong enough. Secondly, we show that evolutionary suicide is impossible for prey population when the intraspecific competition of prey is symmetric about the origin. However, evolutionary suicide can occur deterministically on prey population if prey individuals undergo strong asymmetric competition and are subject to Allee effect. Thirdly, we show that the evolutionary model with symmetric interactions admits a stable limit cycle if the Allee effect of prey is weak. Evolutionary cycle is a likely outcome of the process, which depends on the strength of Allee effect and the mutation rates of predators and prey. Crown Copyright (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Pure alexia (PA) is characterised by strong effects of word length on reading times and is sometimes accompanied by an overt letter-by-letter (LBL) reading strategy. Past studies have reported “”implicit recognition”" in some individual PA patients.

The brain activation patterns observed in association with increased exposures to MeHg and PCBs are meaningful in regard to the known neurotoxicity of these substances. This methodology therefore has 3 potential utility in visualizing structural neural system determinants of exposure-induced neurobehavioral dysfunction. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“In 2006, the Society for Vascular Surgery began development of clinical practice guidelines to assist clinicians in the process of decision making. The Society selects clinical questions of high impact and evaluates the totality of evidence by identifying and conducting rigorous systematic reviews. Multidisciplinary committees follow the Grading of Recommendations,

Assessment, Development and Evaluation framework (GRADE), standard consensus, and voting procedures. Factors other than evidence, including patients’ values and preferences and the availability of surgical expertise, are also considered. We describe, in the context of cumulative 4-years’ experience, the methods and rigor of current procedures adopted by the Society for Vascular Surgery in developing practice guidelines. We also discuss potential future efforts needed to maximize the quality, adoption, and application

of the clinical recommendations. (J Vase Surg 2011;53:1375-80.)”
“Ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a concern to human developmental health. Rat dams were exposed to an environmentally relevant mixture of PCBs, Aroclor 1254, or pure congener PCB 95 (6 mg/kg/day) during the perinatal period (GD 5 through PD 21). Hippocampal slices prepared from offspring 1-3 weeks post-weaning were tested for persisting changes in sensitivity to the excitotoxicant picrotoxin. Hippocampal slices were placed on multielectrode arrays. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) were recorded from Schaffer Collateral/Commissural fibers in striatum radiatum of the CA1 region in response to single pulse stimuli. After recording baseline excitability, GABA(A) receptors were blocked by inclusion

of picrotoxin (100 mu M) in the aCSF perfusate. Picrotoxin produced negligible changes in fEPSP slope in slices isolated from offspring exposed to vehicle, whereas slices from either PCB test group invariably showed >200% (p < 0.01) synaptic facilitation. Picrotoxin produced prominent after-discharges (epileptic wave forms) in the evoked potentials measured from PCB exposed, but not control, hippocampal slices. These results show that developmental exposure to non-coplanar PCBs is sufficient to produce changes in synaptic plasticity that can be unmasked in the presence of GABA(A) receptor deficits that persist 1-3 weeks after exposure ceased. Developmental exposure to PCBs may sensitize seizure susceptibility postnatally, especially in susceptible populations with GABA(A) receptor signaling deficits. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

However, the results of these studies have been rather inconsistent. The aim of the present study was to use statistical parametric mapping (SPM) analysis to explore the effects Of successful BT on regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in patients with OCD. Forty-five OCD patients who were treatment-resistant to a single serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) trial were examined. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) using Selleckchem Selisistat 99mTc-ECD was performed before and after

the completion of 12 weeks of BT. Although no significant differences in pre-treatment rCBF were observed between responders and nonresponders to BT, the post-treatment rCBF values in the left medial prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 10) and bilateral middle frontal gyri (Brodmann area 10) were significantly lower in the responders than in the nonresponders. Furthermore, the baseline rCBF in the bilateral

orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) DMXAA research buy was significantly correlated with the change in the Y-BOCS score among the responders. Our results support the hypothesis that while the OFC may be associated with the BT response, BT may result in changes in rCBF in the medial and middle frontal cortex. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“ATP-sensitive K+ (K-ATP) channel subunits SUR2A and SUR2B in the rat brain were investigated Florfenicol by RT-PCR assay, western blot analysis, in situ hybridization histochemistry, and immunohistochemical staining. The results show that the mRNA and protein of SUR2A and SUR2B are expressed in whole rat brain extracts and selected regions. SUR2 mRNA is widely expressed in many neurons and glial cells as revealed by in situ hybridization histochemistry. Immunohistochemical staining shows SUR2A to be widely expressed in neurons of the brain, especially in the large pyramidal neurons and their main dendrites in the neocortex and in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex. In contrast to SUR2A, SUR2B is potently expressed in small cells in the corpus callosum and cerebellar white

matter, but is also weakly expressed in some neurons. Double immunostaining shows SUR2B to be localized in astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, while SUR2A is only localized in oligodendrocytes. These results suggest that SUR2A might be mainly a regulatory subunit of the K-ATP channel in most neurons and part of oligodendrocytes, while SUR2B might be mainly a regulatory subunit of the K-ATP channel in astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and some neurons. (c) 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and the Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.”
“The neural pathways underlying the respiratory responses elicited by electrical or chemical stimulation of the lateral part of the periaqueductal gray (lPAG) remain unsettled.

Double-labeled neurons were found for all groups, almost entirely ipsilaterally and primarily in the medial (m), waist area (wa), ventral lateral (VI) and el subnuclei. These results suggest that PbN neurons in different subdivisions have different projection and

collateralization patterns to the VPMpc, CeA and LH. Functional implications of these projections are discussed with an emphasis on their roles in taste. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Purpose: There is increasing evidence that ischemic postconditioning may noticeably attenuate renal ischemic-reperfusion injury, although the specific mechanisms are not fully clear. We examined the role of the complement system, especially membrane bound complement regulatory Palbociclib concentration proteins, in postconditioning after renal ischemic-reperfusion injury in a right nephrectomy rat model.

Materials and Methods: After right nephrectomy the left renal pedides were occluded for 60 minutes, followed by 24-hour reperfusion. Postconditioning was induced by 6 cycles of 10-second ischemia

and 10-second reperfusion before reperfusion. After 24-hour reperfusion without a control blood samples were obtained via the vena cava. Renal samples were also obtained. DAF, CD46, CD59, C3aR and C5aR mRNA and protein expression was examined by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. C3/C9 deposition in tissue was detected by immunofluorescence. Renal function, learn more histology and cellular apoptosis were also observed.

Results: In renal tissue postconditioning prevents DAF down-regulation, which is induced by ischemic-reperfusion injury. It results in the decreased renal necrosis caused by ischemic-reperfusion injury mediated complement activation. However, in all experimental groups renal CD46/CD59 expression was not altered. Increased ADP ribosylation factor DAF expression due to postconditioning may decrease C5aR expression in renal tissues compared with ischemic-reperfusion injury, which can decrease apoptosis. C3aR expression did not differ

among the experimental groups.

Conclusions: These findings provide new evidence that postconditioning protects kidneys from ischemic-reperfusion injury, at least in part, by preventing DAF down-regulation.”
“Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) account for as much as 5-6% of familial Parkinson’s disease (PD) and 1-2% of sporadic PD. These mutations represent the most frequent cause of autosomal dominant PD, particularly in certain ethnic groups. In this first report concerning LRRK2 mutations in Mexican-mestizos, we screened 319 consecutive PD patients (186 males; 133 females; mean age at onset: 52.4 years) for LRRK2 mutations in exons 31 and 41 and for the mutation in exon 35, which produces the Y1699C substitution.

Iberiotoxin induced an increase in CGRP release Cl-amidine in vitro from the TNC that was attenuated by NS11021. Thus, BK(Ca) channels might have a role in trigeminovascular pain transmission. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Background Oxytocin, the gold-standard treatment for

post-partum haemorrhage, needs refrigeration, intravenous infusion, and skilled providers for optimum use. Misoprostol, a potential alternative, is increasingly used ad hoc for treatment of post-partum haemorrhage; however, evidence is insufficient to lend support to recommendations for its use. This trial established whether sublingual misoprostol is non-inferior to intravenous oxytocin for treatment of post-partum haemorrhage in women receiving prophylactic oxytocin.

Methods In this double-blind, non-inferiority trial, 31055 Dasatinib mw women exposed to prophylactic oxytocin had blood loss measured after vaginal delivery at five hospitals in Burkina Faso, Egypt, Turkey, and Vietnam (two secondary-level and three tertiary-level facilities). 809 (3%) women were diagnosed with post-partum

haemorrhage and were randomly assigned to receive 800 mu g misoprostol (n=407) or 40 IU intravenous oxytocin (n=402). Providers and women were masked to treatment assignment. Primary endpoints were cessation of active bleeding within 20 min and additional blood loss of 300 mL or more after treatment. Clinical equivalence of misoprostol would be accepted if the upper bound of the 97.5% CI fell below the predefined non-inferiority margin of 6%. All outcomes were assessed from the time of initial treatment. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00116350.

Findings All randomly assigned participants were analysed. Active bleeding was controlled within 20 min after initial treatment for 363 (89%) women given misoprostol and 360 (90%) given oxytocin (relative risk [RR] 0.99, 95% CI 0.95-1.04; crude difference 0.4%, 95% CI -3.9 to 4.6). Additional blood loss of 300 mL or greater after treatment occurred for 139 (34%) women receiving misoprostol and 123 (31%) receiving oxytocin Carbohydrate (RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.92-1.37). Shivering (152 [37%]

vs 59 [15%]; RR 2.54, 95% CI 1.95-3.32) and fever (88 [22%] vs 59 [15%]; 1.47, 1.09-1.99) were significantly more common with misoprostol than with oxytocin. Six women had hysterectomies and two women died.

Interpretation Misoprostol is clinically equivalent to oxytocin when used to stop excessive post-partum bleeding suspected to be due to uterine atony in women who have received oxytocin prophylactically during the third stage of labour.”
“The presence of three water channels (aquaporins, AQP), AQP1, AQP4 and AQP9 were observed in normal brain and several rodent models of brain pathologies. Little is known about AQP distribution in the primate brain and its knowledge will be useful for future testing of drugs aimed at preventing brain edema formation.