Images were captured under a fluorescent microscope to observe the distribution of the cells at the scratch zone at different timepoints. A cell migration assay was performed using transwell chambers with a pore size of 0.8 μm. A total of 1×105 cells were seeded in serum-free medium in the upper chamber, while medium containing 10% FBS was added as a chemoattractant to the

lower chamber. After incubating for 48 h at 37°C, the cells in the upper chamber were carefully removed with a cotton swab, and the cells that had migrated to the reverse face of the membrane were fixed in methanol, stained with Giemsa, and counted. Mouse tumor selleck products transplantation models In vivo studies were conducted in immunodeficient mice. Six female athymic mice, weighing 18–20 g at 4 weeks of age, were obtained from the

Beijing Laboratory Animal Research Center (Beijing, China). All mice were handled according to the recommendations of the National Institutes of Health Guidelines for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The MCF-7/KD cells were inoculated subcutaneously into the right flanks of the mice (2×106 cells/mouse), while the MCF-7/NC cells were inoculated subcutaneously into the left flanks of the mice (2×106 cells/ mouse). Tumor size was measured externally every 3 days using a caliper, and tumor volume was estimated using the equation: length (mm) × width2 (mm) × 0.52. The mice were sacrificed 4 weeks after the transplant, and GSK461364 the tumors were weighed after dissection. Samples from each area were snap-frozen at −80°C for CHIR98014 cost protein preparation, and the corresponding tissue samples were fixed in 4% formalin to obtain paraffin-embedded sections. Western blot After protein lysates were prepared, an equivalent amount of protein from each sample was loaded onto an SDS polyacrylamide gel. The protein lysates were then separated by SDS-PAGE and electroblotted onto PVDF membranes. After blocking with 5% nonfat milk and 0.1% Tween 20 in TBS, the membranes were incubated with rabbit anti-RABEX-5 (1:200 dilution; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, USA), rabbit anti-MMP-9 (1:1000 dilution; Ab76003,

Abcam, UK) and rabbit anti-GAPDH (1:2000 dilution; Acyl CoA dehydrogenase Ab9485, Abcam, UK) antibodies overnight at 4°C. Then, the membranes were incubated with a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody at a dilution of 1:1000 for 1 h. The blots were visualized using ECL Plus Western Blotting Detection Reagents (Beyotime, China) and scanned. Statistical analyses Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 16.0 software. Expression analysis, original real-time PCR data, western blot data, migration data, and colony formation data were recorded as continuous variables and analyzed using Student’s t-test. Differences were considered statistically significant if the P value was less than 0.05. Results Expression of RABEX-5 in tissues and breast cancer cell lines We first examined the expression of RABEX-5 using IHC in breast cancer, benign breast tumor and normal breast tissues.

The positive controls (with 1–2 μg plasmid DNA) generated around 5–6 times more colonies than could be observed on the test plates. Transposon/transduction mutagenesis procedures have been reported to deliver around 1,000 to 3,500 mutants per mutagenesis procedure [19, 23,

24, 27, 47, 48] which means that the efficiency or our method was below the efficiency of transposon/transduction systems. Taking into account the simple handling of our method we consider it nevertheless to be a good alternative to the currently applied methods for mutagenesis of MAH. Fifty randomly chosen colonies from the sample plates were tested for insertion of the Hygr gene by performing a PCR using the this website primers Hyg 2 K LC FW and Hyg 2 K 4SC-202 LC BW (data not shown). By this PCR 49 of the 50 colonies could be confirmed to carry an insertion of the Hygr gene in the genome. Additionally, Southern blots using a PCR fragment produced with primer pair Hyg2K FW and BW as probe were performed to verify if the insertions had occurred at different genome sites in different colonies (data not shown). Hybridising bands were obtained with the DNA from 20 colonies and confirmed independent insertion events. Inverse-PCR using the primers Hyg mut 1 and Hyg mut 2

followed by sequencing of the PCR products enabled us to identify the sites of insertion click here of the Hygr gene in 13 mutants. As shown in Figure  1, there were no hot spots for integration but the insertions were distributed within the whole M. avium genome. Figure 1 Sketch showing randomly 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase mutated genes distributed within the M. avium genome. Genes location

mapped on the genome after sequencing. The genetic characterisation of four virulence-associated mutants is shown in Figure  2. The integration events were accompanied by deletions in all 13 mutants. The smallest deletion had a size of 2 bp, the largest one of 669 bp. All insertions were located within coding regions. Only in one mutant more than one gene was affected by the insertion. In 12 of the 13 mutants the linear recombination substrate had been completely inserted and in one mutant the inserted fragment had been shortened at both ends. The sequences next to the inserted fragment showed no special structure or nucleotide sequences. Figure 2 Sketch illustrating the genetic characterisation of the mutants MAV_1778, MAV_3128, MAV_4334, and MAV_5106. The sites of the insertion of the marker (Hygr gene) were identified by inverse PCR followed by sequencing of the eluted PCR products. The figure shows for four mutants the mutated gene (dark blue) with the site of insertion of the fragment (grey) carrying the Hygr gene (red) and the four genes located upstream and downstream of the mutated gene (light blue). Numbers in the arrows indicate the gene names. The direction of the arrows stands for gene direction. Gene sizes and distances between genes are approximations.

4,501 SNPs consistent with transfer from Eagan (i.e. they were in the same genome location as the Eagan SNPs identified above) were found in the Rd+EaganstrR transformants. We identified 202 SNPs that were common to all respective sequence reads, were not linked closely to other SNPs and were found in both Rd+EaganstrR and Rd+Eagan transformants obtained in control experiments using non-strR Eagan DNA as donor. We conclude that these SNPs were consistent with, and most likely explained by, errors within the reported Rd genome sequence published in 1995. Another possibility,

not mutually exclusive with sequencing errors, could be sequence drift in our laboratory strain (RM118) when compared to the sequenced isolate (Rd KW20). This level of error is similar to the several hundred SNPs reported upon re-sequencing of strain Rd by other investigators

A-1210477 ic50 find more [17] and comparable with the 243 discrepancies found between the original 1997 E. coli strain MG1655 genome sequence [19] and the 2006 re-sequencing [20] of the same strain. Figure 4 Frequency of Eaganstr R and Eagan SNPs in the Rd+Eaganstr R and Rd+Eagan transformants. Panel A; Location and frequency of EaganstrR specific SNPs plotted as estimated number of strains (y-axis) against location in Alvocidib cost RdKW20 genome sequence (x-axis) using SNPSeeker. MAQ was used to identify SNPs in the pooled sequences from 200 transformants. The location of the strR point mutation is indicated. Panel B; A magnified view of one region marked on Panel A showing a putative secondary transformation event. The extent of the chromosomal region involved with this predicted transformation event (13 kbp) is marked. Panel C; A magnified view of the primary transformation event from Panel A with the location of the strR point mutation marked. Panel D; The location and frequency of Eagan-specific SNPs in the genome of pooled Rd+Eagan transformants (200); Eagan unmarked (wild-type) genomic DNA was used as the donor. In the Rd+EaganstrR transformants, a large peak in SNP density centred on the site of the point mutation in rpoB conferring strR (Figure  4). Moving outwards from this central SNP peak,

the Eagan-specific SNPs decrease at a relatively constant rate such /www.selleck.co.jp/products/MG132.html that within 10 kbp of the strR mutation the frequency of strains containing Eagan-specific SNPs decreases at approximately 1 strain/100 bp. Across the 200 transformants, the region of the genome involved in recombination events centred on the strR locus would appear to span an arc of the genome over 80 kbp in size (Figure  4). Given that the strR locus can be at any location in the recombined block of DNA, this indicates a maximum size for the recombined block of at least 40 kbp. In addition to the intense peak centred on the strR conferring SNP, secondary small peaks of SNPs can be observed at other locations in the genome. These secondary peaks contain Eagan strain-specific SNPs at a frequency of approximately 0.

, [4] and a second set of 7 additional markers were described by Zinser [20]. This 15 marker, high-resolution, MLVA system is described in detail by Van Ert et al. [5] with the genomic

positions and primer sets for these assays described in Supplemental Tables 2 and 6 of this reference. Phylogenetic Inference The genetic relationships among the Chinese isolates were established using a hierarchical approach where the slowly evolving, highly conserved, canSNP markers were first used to place each isolate selleck compound into its appropriate clonal lineage. The 15 more rapidly evolving, VNTR loci, were then used to measure the genetic diversity and to determine the number of specific genotypes within each of these clonal lineages. Neighbor joining phylogenetic trees were constructed for both the canSNP and MLVA datasets learn more using PAUP (Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony) [21]; and the MEGA 3 software package [22] was used to calculate average within group distances for each of the five canSNP sub-groups/sub-lineages. Acknowledgements We wish to acknowledge the contributions of Matthew N. Van Ert for

providing conceptual and analytical insights for this project. This work was funded in part by the Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate under contract numbers: NBCH2070001 and HSHQDC-08-C00158. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: List and description of isolates Wortmannin nmr including the canSNP and MLVA Genotypes for each isolate. This table contains: The Keim Laboratory ID # for each isolate, the year of isolation, the source, the canSNP ID, and the originating province. This information is followed by the Keim Genetics Laboratory 15 MLVA genotypes for each isolate, see supplemental material from Van Ert et al., [5]. (DOC 7 MB) References 1. Dong SL: Progress in the control and research of anthrax in China. International Workshop on Anthrax: 1989; Winchester, UK Salisbury Medical Bulletin,

Salisbury Printing Co., Ltd, Salisbury, UK 1989. 2. Liang X, Ma F, Li A: Anthrax surveillance and control in China. International Workshop on Anthrax: 1995; Winchester, UK Salisbury Medical Bulletin, Salisbury Printing Co., Ltd; Salisbury, UK 1995, 16–18. 3. Pearson T, Busch JD, Ravel J, Read TD, Rhoton SD, U’Ren JM, Simonson TS, Kachur SM, Leadem RR, Cardon ML, et al.: Phylogenetic else discovery bias in Bacillus anthracis using single-nucleotide polymorphisms from whole-genome sequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004,101(37):13536–13541.CrossRefPubMed 4. Keim P, Price LB, Klevytska AM, Smith KL, Schupp JM, Okinaka R, Jackson PJ, Hugh-Jones ME: Multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis reveals genetic relationships within Bacillus anthracis. J Bacteriol 2000,182(10):2928–2936.CrossRefPubMed 5. Van Ert MN, Easterday WR, Huynh LY, Okinaka RT, Hugh-Jones ME, Ravel J, Zanecki SR, Pearson T, Simonson TS, U’Ren JM, et al.

Oryzicola . BMC Genomics 2010, 11:78.PubMedCrossRef 44. Magarey RC: Yield decline of sugarcane. Thiazovivin mw In Current trends in sugarcane pathology. Edited by: Rao GP, Gillaspie

AGJr, Upadhyaya PP, Bergamin A, Agnihotri VP, Chen CT. Pitampura: International Books and Periodicals Supply Service; 1994:393–412. 45. Stirling GR, Blair BL, Whittle PJL: Nematode pests: their role in yield decline of sugarcane and opportunities for improved management practices. In Sugarcane: Research towards efficient and sustainable production. Edited by: Wilson JR, Hogarth DM, Campbell JA, Garside AL. Brisbane: CSIRO Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures; 1996:228–229. 46. Nataf Y, Yaron S, Stahl F, Lamed R, Bayer EA, Scheper TH, Sonenshein AL, Shoham Y: Cellodextrin and laminaribiose ABC transporters in Clostridium thermocellum . J Bacteriol 2009, 191:203–209.PubMedCrossRef 47. Davidson AL, Chen J: ATP-binding cassette transporters in bacteria. Annu Rev Biochem 2004, 73:241–268.PubMedCrossRef

48. Elferink MG, Albers SV, Konings WN, Driessen AJ: Sugar transport in Sulfolobus solfataricus is mediated by two families of binding protein-dependent ABC transporters. Mol Microbiol 2001, 39:1494–1503.PubMedCrossRef 49. Barrett JF, Hoch JA: Two-component signal transduction as a target for buy Pinometostat microbial anti-infective therapy. Antimicrob Agents Ch 1998, 42:1529–1536. 50. Dekkers Thymidine kinase LC, Bloemendaal CJP, de Weger LA, Wijffelman CA, this website Spaink HP, Lugtenberg BJ: A two-component system plays an important role in the

root-colonizing ability of Pseudomonas fluorescens strain WCS365. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 1998, 11:45–56.PubMedCrossRef 51. Chaparro JM, Badri DV, Bakker MG, Sugiyama A, Manter DK, Vivanco JM: Root exudation of phytochemicals in Arabidopsis follows specific patterns that are developmentally programmed and correlate with soil microbial functions. PLoS ONE 2013, 8:e55731.PubMedCrossRef 52. Trivedi P, He Z, Van Nostrand JD, Albrigo G, Zhou J, Wang N: Huanglongbing alters the structure and functional diversity of microbial communities associated with citrus rhizosphere. The ISME Journal 2012, 6:363–383.PubMedCrossRef 53. Schneider T, Keiblinger KM, Schmid E, Sterflinger-Gleixner K, Ellersdorfer G, Roschitzki B, Richter A, Eberl L, Zechmeister-Boltenstern S, Riedel K: Who is who in litter decomposition? Metaproteomics reveals major microbial players and their biogeochemical functions. ISME J 2012, 6:1749–1762.PubMedCrossRef 54. Hettich RL, Sharma R, Chourey K, Giannone RJ: Microbial metaproteomics: identifying the repertoire of proteins that microorganisms use to compete and cooperate in complex environmental communities. Curr Opin Microbiol 2012, 15:373–380.PubMedCrossRef 55.

The participant was informed of the decrease in caloric intake and was instructed again

to increase her daily energy intake to 2,600 kcal/day (10,878 kJ/day). She was moderately successful, increasing her intake to approximately 2,350 kcal/day (9,832 kJ/day). Consequently, the cycle following the second resumption was ovulatory but characteristic of an inadequate luteal phase, representing the first ovulatory cycle that this participant experienced during the intervention. Estrogen exposure during the 28 days preceding the ovulation-associated menses increased 64.3% compared to the baseline cycle. Furthermore, Tucidinostat mw despite its anovulatory nature, the length of the subsequent and final cycle during the study declined sharply with an intermenstrual interval of 21 days. Changes in bone VS-4718 order health As Table 4 demonstrates, the participant had a low BMD at the lumbar spine at baseline. After the 12-month intervention, no increases in BMD were observed at any skeletal site; however, P1NP, a marker of bone formation, increased by 49.6%. Table 4 Baseline measurements and the 6-month and 12-month percent change for bone marker concentrations and BMD   Participant 1 Participant 2 Bone markers      P1NP (μg/L) 52.90 36.95    6 month % change 5.6 22.6    12 month % change 49.6 51.6  CTx (ng/ml) 0.65 0.64    6 month % change

−23.1 −29.0    12 month % change 17.7 −36.1 Bone mineral density      Lumbar spine Z-score −1.6 −1.4  Lumbar spine BMD (g/cm2) 0.983 1.056    6 month % change 1.7 2.6    12 month % change 0.8 2.0  Femoral neck Z-score 0.5* −0.6  Femoral neck BMD (g/cm2) 1.062 0.994    6 month % change −2.8 −0.3    12 month % change −4.3 1.4  Hip Z-score 0.0* −1.1  Hip BMD (g/cm2) 0.996 0.955    6 month % change −1.3 −0.4    12 month % change −2.0 1.9 *Z-score at month 6. BMD: bone mineral density; CTx: collagen type 1 cross-linked C-telopeptide; P1NP: pro-collagen type 1 amino-terminal propeptide. Participant 2: short-term amenorrhea Characteristics at baseline This participant was a 24-year old graduate

student who participated in approximately 7 hours of exercise each week, consisting of dancing, running, and mafosfamide weight training. She presented with a normal BMI of 19.7 kg/m2 and percent body fat of 22.7%; however, at the start of the intervention, she had not had menses for three months, and her menstrual history revealed multiple extended episodes of amenorrhea (Table 1). Menarche occurred at 13 years of age. At age 16, she experienced an 8-month episode of amenorrhea. After she resumed menses, she had regular cycles until the age of 21 years when she experienced a prolonged episode of amenorrhea for 2.5 years that she associated with low food intake, stress, and excessive exercise. During this time of amenorrhea, she SBE-��-CD supplier weighed 43 kg but gained about 10 kg to bring her to the weight of 53.8 kg which was measured at the baseline period of this report.

Such an interfacing function mediates different knowledge structures and also contributes to bridging multiple disciplines associated with SS. In summary, we remark that the reference model can also contribute to the second challenge selleck compound of SS of solving problems that inherently require interdisciplinary collaboration. Emricasan Conclusion This paper addressed key challenges associated with knowledge structuring in sustainability science (SS), identified requirements for the structuring of knowledge, proposed a reference model, developed an ontology-based mapping tool as a solution to one layer of the reference model, and examined

the tool’s conformity to the reference model, as well as its usability, effectiveness, and constraints. First, reusability, versatility, reproducibility, extensibility, availability, and interpretability were identified as requirements for SS knowledge structuring. Taking into account these requirements, we developed a reference LY3023414 chemical structure model composed of five layers: Layer 0 stores raw data of the existing world, Layer 1 contains structured information

and concepts in the form of an ontology to explain things and phenomena in the real world, Layer 2 enables divergent exploration by tracing multi-perspective conceptual chains, Layer 3 contextualizes the conceptual chains into multiple convergent chains, and Layer 4 helps an explorer understand or identify an essential problem for SS and assemble existing knowledge for its solution. Second, we developed an ontology-based mapping tool as a tentative solution at Layer 2 of the reference model. The tool was designed to store and retrieve data and information regarding SS, to provide a prototype ontology for SS, and to create multiple maps of conceptual chains depending on a user’s interests and perspectives. We discussed how these functions of the tool can contribute to

the two major challenges for SS: clarifying ‘what to solve’ and ‘how to Glycogen branching enzyme solve.’ Third, we assessed whether the developed tool could realize the targeted requirements and whether it is complaint with the reference model for SS. Although several inappropriate causal chains remain in the prototype ontology and the concepts in the map cannot currently be distinguished by how they are classified in the ontology, the study concluded that the mapping tool can indeed facilitate divergent exploration, the function of Layer 2. The user experiment suggested that realization of the mapping of multi-perspective conceptual chains at Layer 2 could contribute to: (a) finding new potentials and risks of developing technological countermeasures to problems as demanded for SS, (b) helping users to envision a more comprehensive picture of problems and their solutions, and (c) helping to identify new ideas that might be missed without such a tool. The focus of the mapping tool is to show the relationships between concepts broadly.

CrossRef 24. Merritt AM, Sanchez LC, Nocodazole solubility dmso Burrow JA, Church M, Ludzia S: Effect of GastroGard and three compounded oral omeprazole preparations on 24 h intragastric pH in gastrically cannulated

mature horses. Equine Vet J 2003, 35:691–695.PubMedCrossRef 25. Lowe SE, Pankratz HS, Zeikus JG: Influence of pH extremes on sporulation and ultrastructure of Sarcina check details ventriculi. J Bacteriol 1989, 171:3775–3781.PubMed 26. DeBey BM, Blanchard PC, Durfee PT: Abomasal bloat associated with Sarcina-like bacteria in goat kids. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1996, 209:1468–1469.PubMed 27. Vatn S, Tranulis MA, Hofshagen M: Sarcina -like bacteria, Clostridium fallax and Clostridium sordellii in Lambs with Abomasal Bloat, Haemorrhage and Ulcers. J Comp Pathol 2000, 122:193–200.PubMedCrossRef 28. Vatn S, Gunnes G, Nybo K, Juul HM: Possible involvement of Sarcina ventriculi in canine and equine acute gastric dilatation. Acta Vet Scand 2000, 41:333–337.PubMed 29. Al Jassim RA, Scott PT, Trebbin AL, Trott D, Pollitt CC: The genetic diversity of lactic acid producing bacteria in the equine gastrointestinal tract. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2005, 248:75–81.PubMedCrossRef 30. Varloud M, Fonty G, Roussel A, Guyonvarch A, Julliand V: Postprandial kinetics of some biotic and abiotic characteristics of the gastric ecosystem of horses fed a pelleted concentrate meal. J Anim Sci 2007, 85:2508–2516.PubMedCrossRef 31. Yuki N, Shimazaki T, Kushiro A, Watanabe K, Uchida K, Yuyama T, Morotomi M: Colonization

of the Stratified Squamous Epithelium of the Nonsecreting Area of Horse Stomach by Lactobacilli. Appl learn more Environ Microbiol 2000, 66:5030–5034.PubMedCrossRef 32. Scott DR, Marcus EA, Weeks DL, Lee A, Melchers K, Sachs G: Expression of the Helicobacter pylori ureI gene is required for acidic pH activation of cytoplasmic urease. Infect Immun 2000, 68:470–477.PubMedCrossRef 33. Wong WM, Wong BCY, Tang VSY, Lai KC, Yuen ST, Leung SY, Hu WH, Lam SK: An evaluation of the HAS1 PyloriTek test

for the diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infection in Chinese patients before and after eradication therapy. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001, 16:976–980.PubMedCrossRef 34. Amann RI, Binder BJ, Olson RJ, Chisholm SW, Devereux R, Stahl DA: Combination of 16S Ribosomal-Rna-Targeted Oligonucleotide Probes with Flow-Cytometry for Analyzing Mixed Microbial-Populations. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990, 56:1919–1925.PubMed 35. Chan V, Crocetti G, Grehan M, Zhang L, Danon S, Lee A, Mitchell H: Visualization of Helicobacter species within the murine cecal mucosa using specific fluorescence in situ hybridization. Helicobacter 2005, 10:114–124.PubMedCrossRef 36. Manz W, Amann R, Ludwig W, Wagner M, Schleifer KH: Phylogenetic Oligodeoxynucleotide Probes for the Major Subclasses of Proteobacteria – Problems and Solutions. Syst Appl Microbiol 1992, 15:593–600. 37. Lane DJ: 16S/23S rRNA sequencing. In Nucleic acid techniques in bacterial systematics. Edited by: Stackebrandt E, Goodfellow M. New York, N.Y: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 1991:115–147. 38.

Figure 5 Impedance spectra of the high and low resistance states in the Al/PCMO/Pt Adavosertib device. The solid line connects experimental data points. Figure  6 shows impedance

spectra of the initial, high resistance, and low resistance states in the Ni/PCMO/Pt device. Only one semicircular arc, which was assigned to the bulk component, was observed in the Cole-Cole plots. The decrease in the diameter of the semicircular arc was observed by switching from the high to low resistance states. The change in the bulk component corresponds to the overall resistance change in the Ni/PCMO/Pt device. Figure 6 Impedance spectra of the initial, high resistance, and low resistance states in the Ni/PCMO/Pt device. INCB024360 in vitro The solid line connects experimental data points. Figure  7 shows impedance spectra of the initial, high resistance, and low resistance states in the Ag/PCMO/Pt device. Only the structure due to the bulk component of these three states was observed in the Cole-Cole plots. The resistance in the high and low resistance states was smaller than that in the initial state. A part of a semicircular

arc was observed in the high and low resistance states, while a complete semicircular arc was seen in the initial state. The change in the bulk component was detected by applying an electric voltage for resistance switching. Figure 7 Impedance spectra of (a) initial state and (b) high and low resistance https://www.selleckchem.com/products/iwr-1-endo.html states in the Ag/PCMO/Pt device. The solid line connects experimental data points. The real part of impedance at 0 Hz measured by alternating current (ac) impedance spectroscopy corresponds to the dc resistance of the device. On the contrary, the real part values of impedance at 0 Hz shown in the impedance spectra (Figures  5, 6, and 7) do not show a good agreement with the resistance values shown in the electric-pulse-induced resistance switching behavior (Figures 

1b, 2, and 3b, respectively). The same top electrode material and the same characterization technique reproducibly resulted in the similar resistance change. However, the results strongly depend on the techniques. The reason, which is not clear yet, may lie in some intrinsic difference of resistance transition processes between each technique. Figure  8 shows impedance spectra of the Au/PCMO/Pt device. Only SPTLC1 one semicircle was observed in the Cole-Cole plot. No change by applying an electric pulse was observed in the Cole-Cole plot. Figure 8 Impedance spectra of the Au/PCMO/Pt device. The solid line connects experimental data points. The work function of the electrode metals is shown in Figure  9. In general, PCMO is a p-type semiconductor with a work function of 4.9 eV [40]. Because Ni and Au have a larger work function than PCMO, a Schottky barrier is not expected to be formed between the top electrode and PCMO in the Ni/PCMO/Pt and Au/PCMO/Pt devices.

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