All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Leptospirosis, the most common zoonotic illness affecting humans, is caused by spirochetes of NVP-BGJ398 the genus Leptospira[1, 2]. Some Leptospira species live exclusively in water or soil, while others cycle between environmental and mammalian reservoirs. Leptospira can colonize/infect

renal tubules of a wide variety of wild and domesticated mammals. Human disease follows exposure to water or soil contaminated with urine of infected animals. Leptospirosis can be asymptomatic, or manifest as a mild flu-like illness. In another subset of individuals (5-10 % of patients) Leptospira can produce more serious systemic infections resulting in pulmonary hemorrhage, jaundice, renal failure, refractory shock, myocarditis, and/or aseptic meningitis. Despite its medical importance, few virulence determinants of pathogenic Leptospira have been characterized in any detail.

Investigation of the organism is hampered by its fastidiousness, slow growth in culture and the lack of available genetic tools. To date, only Omp-A like lipoprotein Loa22 has been demonstrated selleck compound to be necessary for virulence, appearing to be cytotoxic and capable of inducing apoptosis. [3–5] LipL32, a major outer membrane protein of pathogenic Leptospira, is expressed in vivo and, although it has been shown to bind to host extra-cellular membrane, LipL32 does not seem to be required for acute or Geneticin solubility dmso chronic infection in vivo in animal models. [6, 7] Other potential virulence leptospiral factors include LigA and LigB that contain immunoglobulin-like repeats associated with adhesion to host cells in other gram-negative bacteria. Other proteins shown to have laminin binding activity in-vitro include LenA/LfhA/Lsf24 and related proteins LenBCDEF. LenA seems to also bind factor H of complement, so it might have more than one role in virulence. [8, 9]. Leptospiral LPS, although not characterized in detail, has some unique characteristics PDK4 which could explain why

it is poorly recognized by the TLR4- MD2 complex. This diminished recognition could contribute to leptospiral survival in the bloodstream and dissemination. Other potential virulence factors for which more evidence remains to be published include mediators of motility and chemotaxis, including chemotaxis towards hemoglobin [10]. Sialic acids are a diverse family of acidic nine-carbon backbone (nonulosonic) monosaccharides found in abundance on the surfaces of mammalian cells and are sometimes expressed by microbial pathogens. The most common sialic acid in nature is N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac). Expression of Neu5Ac by pathogenic bacteria has been linked mechanistically to complement and neutrophil evasion in disseminated infections with Streptococcus and Neisseria and with the induction of autoimmune neuropathy following infection with Campylobacter.

# indicates that the genetic region was previously described as variable among S. Enteritidis isolates [21]. Table 4 Regions (REG) and single genes (SING) absent in the S. Enteritidis PT4 P125109 chromosome and predicted by CGH analysis as present in at least one Enteritidis isolate.   ISOLATE DESIGNATION GENE RANGE HOMOLOGOUSa GENE DESCRIPTION REG 10A 31/88 SDT1842-SDT1843 Z-VAD-FMK mouse No Similar to E coli K12 ymfD, ymfE phage proteins REG 10B 31/88, 8/89, 47/95 (only SDT1860) SDT1846-SDT1860 No Shigella Phage proteins REG 11# 8/89, AF3353, 31/88 (only STY1036) STY1034-STY1036 SL1344, LT2, TY2, DT104 Part of

Gifsy-2 antitermination ninG, dnaJ REG 12A 31/88, 8/89 SL2583-SL2584 SBG Phage related protein REG 12B 31/88, 8/89 SL2588-SL2594 some SBG Phage proteins, putative methyltransferase, unknown REG 12C 31/88, 8/89 SL2599-SL2600 LT2, SDT104 Gifsy-1 integrase, unknown REG 13 AF3353, 8/89 (only STY1013) STY1011-STY1013 TY2, LT2, SL1344, DT104 Phage proteins (integrase, excisionase) REG 14 AF3353, 8/89 (only STY1021) STY1021-STY1024 TY2, LT2, SL1344, DT104 Phage proteins REG 15A# AF3353 STY3674-STY3689

SL1344, LT2, TY2, SPA ST35 phage proteins REG 15B AF3353 STY3696-STY3702 TY2, SPA, LT2, SL1344 ST35 phage proteins REG16A AF3353 STY4600-STY4602 TY2, SPA. LT2, SL1344, SBG (except 4600) Part of S. Typhi phage SopE REG16B AF3353 STY4605-STY4607 TY2, SPA, LT2, SL1344, SBG Part of S. Typhi phage SopE REG16C# AF3353 STY4613-STY4628 TY2, SPA. LT2, SL1344 (except 4619) Part MCC950 of S. Typhi phage SopE REG16D# AF3353 STY4633-STY4635 SL1344, LT2, SPA Part of S. Typhi phage SopE REG16E AF3353 STY4638-STY4639 TY2, SPA, LT2. SL1344 (except 4639) Part of S. Typhi phage SopE REG16F AF3353 STY4641-STY4645 TY2, SPA. LT2 (except 4641) Part of S. Typhi phage SopE SING 10 53/94, 57/94, 47/95,

49/98 SBG0310 No unknown SING 11 31/88 SBG3602 LT2, CT18 Hypothetical protein SING 12 S1400/94 STY0114 TY2, SPA Putative IS transposase SING 13 77/02 STY0480 TY2, SPA Hypothetical protein SING 14 49/98 STY4582 No Exported protein SING 15 31/88 STM0293 SL1344, DT104 unknown SING 16 31/88 SDT2674 SL1344 unknown SING 17 31/88, 8/89 STM2584 DT104, SL1344 gogB, leucine-rich repeat protein SING 18 49/98 STY3619 TY2, SPA, LT2, SL1344 Conserved membrane protein SING 19 AF3353 VAV2 SBG0897 SBG Phage related protein SING 20 AF3353 SDT1865 No unknown SING 21 AF3353 SDT3861 No unknown SING 22 AF3353 STY1073 LT2, TY2 unknown SING 23 AF3353 STY2013 TY2 unknown SING 24 AF3353 STY4600 TY2, SPA Transcriptional regulator SING 25 AF3353 KPT-8602 STY4619 TY2, SPA Putative membrane protein SING 26 AF3353 STY4639 TY2, LT2, SPA Hypothetical protein a indicates when the REG or SING has homologous region described in other sequenced Salmonella serovars (see list of abbreviations). # indicates that the genetic region was previously described as variable among S. Enteritidis isolates [21]. Figure 1 Graphic representation of the chromosomal genes found in this study as part of S . Enteritidis Dispensable Genome (233 genes).

3 kDa) CB-839 clinical trial was tested against RbaW-conjugated beads (Lanes 7 and 8) as a control. The gel was stained with Coomassie blue and the resulting

image was adjusted for brightness and contrast. Molecular weight references are indicated on the left of the gel. To further confirm the specific interaction between RbaV and RbaW, a bacterial two-hybrid analysis was used. The vectors pKNT-rbaV and pUT18c-rbaW were co-transformed into the E. coli PF-562271 solubility dmso reporter strain BTH101 and β-galactosidase activities were determined in triplicate transformants alongside controls (Table 1). The average β-galactosidase activity of the experimental pair was found to be 1440 units mg-1 while all negative controls had activities between 101 and 202 units mg-1 and the positive control with interacting leucine zipper fragments had an average activity of 7339 units mg-1 (Table 1). Discussion A previous transcriptomic study of R. capsulatus identified a number of predicted regulatory protein-encoding genes that were affected by the loss of the response regulator protein CtrA [8]. These included putative anti-σ and anti-anti-σ proteins with sequence homology to proteins in the Rsb system characterized in some species of Firmicutes

as involved in response to both stress and entry into stationary phase via control of σB[15]. Outside of the Firmicutes, homologues of the Rsb proteins have also been implicated in regulating diverse physiological processes, including production of type III secretion systems TCL [64], biofilm formation [32] and swarming motility [30]. All of the rsb gene homologues see more we have identified in R. capsulatus (rbaV, rbaW, and rbaY) have lower transcript levels in the absence of CtrA [8], and we have now shown these affect expression of the RcGTA gene cluster and thereby production of RcGTA. However,

it remains to be determined if this regulation is direct or indirect. This is the first investigation of Rsb homologues in the α-proteobacteria. It has previously been hypothesized that R. capsulatus produces RcGTA in stationary phase as part of a stress response and we propose that one way in which RcGTA production is increased in stationary phase is through the actions of this Rba system. The rbaY, rbaV and rbaVW mutants all had similar phenotypes, with effects on RcGTA gene expression, stationary phase cell viability, and colony morphology. The similarities in the rbaV and rbaY mutant phenotypes support the notion that these proteins are working in a common pathway and the decrease in RcGTA gene expression in these mutants indicate they are positive regulators of RcGTA production. Based on the Bacillus model, the predicted function of RbaY is to dephosphorylate RbaV-P, thereby allowing RbaV to interact with RbaW and promote target gene expression by the cognate σ factor [22]. The R.

For each time point the transcribed and labelled RNA of the pH 5.75 grown culture was hybridised together with the differently labelled RNA of the pH 7.0 reference culture to the Sm6kOligo microarray. The whole procedure was performed in three biological replicates to ensure the validity of the microarray data. The microarray images were analysed using the Imagene Software and EMMA [26] (For microarray data see: http://​www.​ebi.​ac.​uk/​microarray-as/​ae/​). As expected, the microarray analysis for the six selleckchem successive time points revealed a high number of genes with different expression characteristics over the tested period. In order to identify

genes that presumably play a significant role in the cellular Fludarabine cost response to acidic pH the following filtering criteria were applied. Only genes with a log2 fold PRIMA-1MET mouse difference in spot intensities on the microarray slides (M value) of ≥ 2 or ≤ -2 were considered. Because we were

also interested in genes that were only transiently active, this limit of significance had to be achieved for at least one time point during the time series. In addition, it was of importance for clustering that each gene was represented with an evaluable expression value (R ≥ 1.5 for both channels) for at least 5 out of the 6 time points. 230 genes fulfilled these filtering criteria. To estimate the number of false positive genes after filtering the false discovery rate (FDR) control was applied for all expression data of these 230 genes. The FDR control revealed a proportion Rutecarpine of less than 1% false positives. Additionally, the tendency of the microarray results was confirmed by qRT-PCR for two of the obtained genes (lpiA and phoC) (data not shown). Since the S. meliloti genome is composed of three replicons with distinctive functional features [8] the distribution of the 230 genes

fulfilling the filtering criteria was determined. The percentage of differentially expressed genes of the total number of genes was 3.95% for the chromosome, 2.48% for pSymA, and 4.20% for pSymB. Therefore, compared to the chromosome genes located on pSymB were slightly over represented whereas genes of pSymA were noticeably under represented in the time course experiment. A possible explanation is that pSymA carries mostly symbiosis related genes which are not responding, whereas pSymB and the chromosome contain housekeeping genes. The slight over representation of pSymB might be based on the up-regulation of exopolysaccharide biosynthesis genes (see below). In the next step, a clustering of these genes was performed according to their expressional characteristics over time. By hierarchical clustering, a separation into eight different clusters was estimated.

Thus, we have (84) (85) References 1. Sohn LL, Kouwenhoven LP, Schön G: Mesoscopic Electron Transport. Kluwer: Dordrecht; 1997. 2. Ando T, Arakawa Y, Furuya K, Komiyama S, Nakashima H: Mesoscopic Physics and Electronics. Springer: Berlin; 1998.CrossRef 3. Louisell WH: Quantum Statistical Properties of Radiation. New York: Wiley; 1973.

4. Zhang S, Choi JR, Um CI, Yeon KH: Quantum uncertainties of mesoscopic inductance-resistance coupled circuit. J Korean Phys Soc 2002, 40:325–329. 5. Baseia B, De Brito Nirogacestat AL: Quantum noise reduction in an electrical circuit having a time dependent parameter. Physica A 1993, 197:364–370.CrossRef 6. Choi JR: Exact solution of a quantized LC circuit coupled to a power source. Phys Scr 2006, 73:587–595.CrossRef 7. Park TJ: Canonical transformations for time-dependent harmonic oscillators. Bull Korean Chem Soc 2004, 25:285–288.CrossRef 8. Cong J, He L, Koh CK, Madden PH: Performance optimization of VLSI interconnect layout. Integration-VLSI J 1996, 21:1–94.CrossRef 9. Ayten UE, Sagbas M, Sedef H: Current mode leapfrog ladder filters using a new active block. Int J Electron Commun 2010, 64:503–511.CrossRef 10. Jeltsema D, Scherpen JMA: A dual relation between port-Hamiltonian systems and the Brayton-Moser

learn more equations for nonlinear switched RLC circuits. Automatica 2003, 39:969–979.CrossRef 11. Paulson EK, Martin RW, Zilm KW: Cross polarization, radio frequency field homogeneity, and circuit balancing in high field solid state NMR probes. J Magn Reson 2004, 171:314–323.CrossRef 12. Babič M, Vertechy R, Berselli G, Lenarčič J, Castelli VP, Vassura G: An electronic driver for improving the open and closed loop electro-mechanical response of dielectric elastomer actuators. Mechatronics 2010, 20:201–212.CrossRef 13. Haji-Nasiri S, Faez R, Moravvej-Farshi MK: Stability analysis in multiwall

carbon nanotube bundle interconnects. Microelectron Reliab 2012, 52:3026–3034.CrossRef 14. Alioto M: Vactosertib molecular weight Modeling strategies of the input admittance of RC interconnects for VLSI CAD tools. Microelectron J 2011, 42:63–73.CrossRef 15. Parthasarathy S, Loganthurai P, Selvakumaran S, Rajasekaran DV: Harmonic mitigation in UPS system using Y27632 PLL. Energy Procedia 2012, 14:873–879.CrossRef 16. Fathabadi H: Stability analysis of circuits including BJT differential pairs. Microelectron J 2010, 41:834–839.CrossRef 17. Moller KB, Jorgensen TG, Dahl JP: Displaced squeezed number states: position space representation, inner product, and some applications. Phys Rev A 1996, 54:5378–5385.CrossRef 18. Marchiolli MA, da Silva LF, Melo PS, Dantas CMA: Quantum-interference effects on the superposition of N displaced number states. Physica A 2001, 291:449–466.CrossRef 19.

However, un-controlled inflammation is harmful to the host and eventually damages the niche involved Salmonella AZD1480 cost growth. AvrA plays a role opposite to that of the other known effectors by inhibiting the inflammatory Luminespib manufacturer responses in intestine. Hence, one could argue that AvrA’s role in inhibiting inflammation allows the pathogen to survive well in the host, thus establishing a mutually beneficial relationship. Our current study investigated gene expression at the mRNA level in response to AvrA. Posttranscriptional modification by AvrA cannot be identified by DNA array analysis. Study using Western blot and other protein assay methods will provide further insights into the AvrA’s regulation of eukaryotic proteins

in intestine. Taken together, our findings show that AvrA specifically inhibits inflammatory responses and promotes proliferation in vivo. It is important to understand how AvrA works in vivo because of the Salmonella problems and the bioweapon threat of bacterial toxins. We believe that studies on the action of bacterial effectors will uncover new facets

of bacterial-host interaction that may lead to the development of new therapeutic drugs or vaccines against important human pathogens. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. Constance D. Baldwin at the University of Rochester for critical revising and editing of this manuscript, Xi Emma Li for her excellent technical support, Julia Militar for helpful editing, and Jody Bown for helpful suggestion on microarray software. This work was supported by the NIDDK KO1 DK075386 and the American Cancer learn more Society RSG-09-075-01-MBC to Jun Sun. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Table S1. Montelukast Sodium Primer sequence for qRT-PCR. Listing all primer sequences used in qRT-PCR (PDF file). PCR data were shown in Figure 3. (PDF 238 KB) Additional file 2: Table S2. Differentially expressed genes between the SL1344 infection and the SB1117 infection at early stage. The list of differentially expressed genes

between the SL1344 infection and the SB1117 infection at 8 hours post-infection (P ≤ 0.05 with fold change≥1.2 or ≤-1.2). (XLSX 50 KB) Additional file 3: Table S3. Differentially expressed genes between the SL1344 infection and the SB1117 infection at late stage. The list of differentially expressed genes between the SL1344 infection and the SB1117 infection at 4 days post-infection (P ≤ 0.05 with fold change≥1.2 or ≤-1.2). (XLS 102 KB) Additional file 4: Table S4. Target pathway of down-regulated genes in SL1344vs SB1117 infection group at 8 hours. Listing target pathway of down-regulated genes in SL1344vs SB1117 infection group at 8 hours post-infection. (PDF 252 KB) Additional file 5: Table S5. Target pathway of down-regulated genes in SL1344 vs SB1117 infection group at 4 days. Listing target pathway of down-regulated genes in SL1344vs SB1117 infection group at 4 day post-infection. (PDF 250 KB) References 1.

The rapid drying was facilitated by the convenient volatility of chloroform [40]. The phyto-E and phyto-L-nanomodified wound dressing specimens were sterilized by ultraviolet irradiation for 20 min. Figure 1 illustrates the wound dressing with phyto-nanofluid coating. Figure 1 Schematic representation of the microbial biofilm development on the uncoated and coated wound dressings. (a) wound dressing fiber; (b)

biofilm development on the surface of wound dressing fiber; (c) coated wound dressing fiber by the obtained phyto-nanofluid; (d) poorly developed microbial biofilm on the surface of the modified textile material. Bacterial adherence and biofilm assay this website by viable cell count method Overnight bacterial cultures of P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and S. aureus ATCC 25923 were diluted in fresh Luria broth

(LB) up to a turbidity of 0.5 McFarland (approximately 1 × 108 CFU/mL), and 2 mL of the obtained suspension were seeded in 6 multi-well plates containing the wound dressing specimens previously sterilized by UV irradiation. The plates were incubated for 24 h at 37°C. For the adherence assay, after the incubation time, the materials were gently washed with sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS) in order to remove the non-adherent bacteria and placed in 2 mL centrifuge tubes https://www.selleckchem.com/products/epz-5676.html containing 1 ml of sterile PBS. The samples were vigorously mixed by vortexing for 1 min and sonicated Cobimetinib for 10 s [41]. Serial dilutions obtained from each sample were inoculated on LB agar plates in triplicates, and viable cell counts (VCCs) were assessed after incubation for 24 h at 37°C. For the biofilm assay, the materials containing attached bacteria were washed with sterile PBS and incubated in fresh LB broth for 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h at 37°C. After each incubation period, the samples were gently washed with sterile PBS, mixed by vortexing, and sonicated. Serial dilutions were placed on LB plates in triplicate. After 24 h of incubation at 37°C, VCCs were assessed. The experiment was repeated with three separate

occasions. Statistics For the statistical interpretation, we have used GraphPadInStat (GraphPad Software, Inc., CA, USA) and Prism softwares (Prism Software Corporation, CA, USA). The results were analyzed and YM155 research buy compared using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Bonferroni Multiple Comparisons Test. P values lower than 0.05 were considered significant. Results and discussion Textile industry is a small part of the global research in the emerging areas of nanotechnology, the fibers and textiles industries being in fact the first to have successfully implemented these advances and demonstrated the applications of nanotechnology for consumer usage [42]. Nanotechnologies have been largely used for different biomedical applications.

Lamellae free, moderately crowded, white when young, white to cream colored when mature, sometimes slightly with pinkish tinge, thin, with lamellulae. Stipe whitish,

subcylindrical, 9–11 × 1.0–2.0 cm, gradually attenuating upwards, glabrous or with shiny hairs, hollow; base slightly selleck chemical enlarged to subglobose, 3.5–4.0 cm wide. Annulus ascending, whitish, membranous, slightly complex, with brownish patchy squamules on the underside. Context white to whitish, spongy, unchanging color when cut, but at edge of stipe slightly with wine red tinge, odorless. Taste mild or indistinct. Basidiospores (Fig. 5c) [136/8/6] (12.0) 13.0–15.0 (16.0) × (7.5) 8.5–10.0 (10.5) μm, Q = (1.38) 1.40–1.63 (1.67), avQ = 1.50 ± 0.08, ellipsoid to ovoid in side view, ellipsoid in front view, thick-walled, smooth, hyaline, dextrinoid, congophilous, metachromatic in cresyl blue, with a germ pore caused by an selleck screening library interruption in the episporium on the rounded apex, covered with a hyalinous cap in KOH; apiculus not distinctive, about 1 μm long. Basidia (Fig. 5d) 35–52 × 13–16 μm, clavate, thin-walled, hyaline, 4-spored rarely 2-spored. Cheilocystidia (Fig. 5e) 20–43 × 9.5–15 μm, obtusely fusiform to subclavate

in most cases, occasionally subcylindric to vesiculose, hyaline, thin-walled, in bunches forming a sterile edge. Pleurocystidia absent. Squamules on pileus (Fig. 5b) a palisade of subcylindric, clampless hyphae (20–65 μm in length, 5–10 μm in diam.), seldomly branched, with terminal elements slightly attenuate toward the tip, with yellowish to brownish vacuolar pigment, slightly thick-walled. Clamp connections common at ubiquitin-Proteasome system the base of basidia and cheilocystidia. Habitat and known crotamiton distribution in China: Terrestrial and saprotrophic, solitary to scattered in open meadows or under bushes. Distributed in northern and southwestern China (Inner

Mongolia and Sichuan). Materials examined: Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region: Wulanchabu (Ulanqab) City, alt. 1590 m, 1 Aug. 1990, P. G. Liu 623 (HKAS 23040); Aug. 1994, X. L. Mao 8111 [HMAS 63157 (M); Aug. 1994, X. L. Mao 8116 [HMAS 73304 (M); Sichuan Province: Xiangcheng County, alt. 3000 m, 12 July 2004, Z. W. Ge 96 (HKAS 45863, holotype); Xiangcheng County, shagong, alt. 3000 m, 11 July 1998, Z. L. Yang 2286 (HKAS 32153); on the way from Jiulong County to Mianning County, 16 July 2005, Z. W. Ge 505 (HKAS 49001). Comments: Macrolepiota orientiexcoriata is characterized by the combination of brownish to reddish-brown furfuraceous squamules composed of a palisade of subcylindric, seldomly branched, clampless hyphae, and the obtusely fusiform to subclavate cheilocystidia. Macrolepiota orientiexcoriata is very close to M. excoriata (Schaeff.) Wasser both morphologically and molecularly. However, M. excoriata has a pileus with an indistinct umbo, the pileal squamules are more often star-shaped, and the stipe is smooth (Candusso and Lanzoni 1990; Breitenbach and Kränzlin 1995; Vellinga 2001).

Also

known as the “Tragedy of the Commons,” this concept is applicable anywhere as shared Temsirolimus cell line natural resources are depleted by self-interested individuals who are nevertheless aware that such depletions are contrary Selleck mTOR inhibitor to the long-term interests of the larger social group to which they belong (Hardin 1968). Overcoming the commons dilemma and maximizing the utility of common resources through sharing require that decision makers see measurable reciprocities that accomplish a shared goal. The goal of our application was to highlight such reciprocities and improve local sustainability across five resource-intensive sectors. Adapting the sister city phenomena This study aims to address some of these local-scale, municipal-level sustainability challenges by repurposing the sister city model of civic cooperation. Such city-to-city connections first emerged in Europe between 1880 and 1900. After undergoing a period of expansion during the interwar years roughly (1920–1935), sister city programs were formally established by the hundreds all across Europe, North America, and the rest of the learn more globe after World War II (WWII) (Ewen and Hebbert 2007). For much of this time, but especially since 1945, sister city partnerships have aimed at fostering cultural and political exchange. The sister

city phenomenon, which is known as “town twinning” in the United Kingdom and Europe, is typically defined by the establishment of social, cultural, and political ties between municipalities in separate nation-states. While a few instances of intranational twinning can be identified in Europe and Canada, the phenomenon has tended to be predominately international in nature (Zelinski 1991). Despite some nineteenth- and early twentieth-century precedents, the current configuration of the sister city phenomenon—and its international orientation—is largely a product of the Cold War era. After World

War II, a number of organizations and communities across Europe and the United States sought to establish closer sociocultural ties as a bulwark against future conflict and wars (Zelinski 1991; Clarke 2010). Within Europe, town twinning Thalidomide was generally developed without a universal definition or guideline. Großpietsch argues that the contemporary partnerships tend to evolve on a case-by-case basis as elected officials, and committed citizens from each municipality pursue their respective interests through their own particular interpretation of the partnership’s objectives (Großpietsch 2010). In recent decades, the European Commission has funded town twinning with the dual objective of encouraging links between cities within established EU countries [i.e.

Desalination

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