Errors were confirmed using one or more sources of information e.g. patient’s own medicines, GP medicine list or previous discharge letters. Medication errors were identified by a pharmacist researcher. To assess the consistency of error identification; ten medicine charts were reviewed independently by a senior hospital pharmacist.

Agreement was assessed using kappa analysis. The pilot MR RCT study was approved by RGFP966 cost the Essex ethics committee. A total of 60 errors were identified at admission in the control group. Twenty five (83.3%) patients had at least one medication error with a median (IQ) of 2 (1, 3). The inter-rater agreement kappa score was 0.51, indicating good agreement. Variances identified VE-822 mw with error identification were discussed with the study principal

investigator and consequently the process was standardised. Table 1 summarises admission, discharge and 3 months post discharge errors in the control patients. Most unintentional errors were due to omissions. The majority of admission omissions were continued until discharge. At three months, 25 (43.1) % of discharge errors were potentially continued in primary care. Table 1: Admission and discharge and 3 month post discharge error for a subset of patients in the control group Identification of errors in primary care records at three months post discharge which agreed with those identified at discharge was possible. These however can only be confirmed as errors after discussion with the GP which is the next stage of the study. A much lower proportion of errors identified at discharge actually translated into primary care at three months, therefore it is inappropriate to assume that all errors in discharge letters result in patient harm. From this analysis it would seem that less than half of discharge errors persist and this may reduce further once discussions have taken place. 1. Sexton J, Ho YJ, Green CF, Caldwell NA. Ensuring seamless care at hospital discharge: a national survey. Journal of

Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 2000; 25: 385–393. 2. Cornu P, Steurbaut S, Leysen T, et al. Effect of Medication Reconciliation Cell Penetrating Peptide at Hospital Admission on Medication Discrepancies During Hospitalization and at Discharge for Geriatric Patients. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 2012; 46: 484–494. Sarah Corlett1, Linda Dodds1,2 1Medway School of Pharmacy, Chatham Maritime, Kent, UK, 2East and South East England Specialist Pharmacy Services, Kent, UK Focus groups were used to explore community pharmacists’ views and experiences of the New Medicines Service (NMS). Pharmacists considered the NMS was an appropriate and rational service for them to provide and that it would benefit patients.

A 1 g L−1 stock was prepared in acetone and exposure solutions were made from it. All other chemicals were of analytical learn more grade procured from local commercial

sources. Gram-negative representative strain E. coli K12 and Gram-positive representative strain B. subtilis B19 were kept in the laboratory of Environment Microbiology and Microbial Molecular Ecology, Northeast Agricultural University. Escherichia coli K12 and B. subtilis B19 were inoculated into LB medium (composed of 10 g tryptone, 5 g yeast extract, 10 g NaCl, 1000 mL H2O, adjusted pH to 7.0 and autoclaved to sterilize) and incubated at 30 °C with shaking at 130 r.p.m. To elucidate the toxicity and influence of atrazine to bacteria, the bacterial growth rate in the presence and absence of 500 μg L−1 atrazine in LB medium were investigated by reading the optical density at a wavelength of 600 nm (OD600 nm) every 4 h. Escherichia coli K12 and B. subtilis B19 were incubated in LB Veliparib supplier medium for 24 h. Atrazine was

added to final concentrations of 0, 100, 200, 500, 800 and 1000 μg L−1. Bacterial cells were harvested after treatment with atrazine for 0, 6, 12 and 24 h. Bacterial cells (20 mL) harvested from liquid LB medium were centrifuged at 10 000 g for 10 min, washed twice with ice-cold 0.9% sodium chloride solution, and resuspended in a fresh 0.9% sodium chloride solution (5 mL) prior to lysis. Cell suspensions were then subjected to 99 rounds of sonication in an ice-water bath for 3 s, followed by cooling for

another 3 s. The debris was removed by centrifugation at 15 000 g for 10 min. The supernatant was SPTLC1 transferred to a new sterile centrifugal tube and used for enzyme activity assay directly. Protein concentration, SOD, CAT, GST activities and T-AOC were determined spectrophotometrically at 595, 550, 240, 412 and 520 nm, respectively, using commercial kits A045, A001, A007, A004 and A015 (Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute, Jiangsu Province, China) (Lü et al., 2009). One unit of SOD was defined as the amount of the enzyme which gave 50% inhibition of the oxidation rate of 0.1 mM pyrogallol in 1 mL of solution at 25 °C (Zhang et al., 2005). One unit of CAT was defined as the amount of lysate that decomposed 1 μmol of H2O2 at pH 7.0 and 25 °C in 1 min (Lü et al., 2009). One unit of GST was defined as the amount of lysate that decomposed 1.0 μM of GSH at 37 °C in 1 min, excluding non-enzymatic reaction. One unit of T-AOC was defined as the increment in the absorbance by 0.01 at 37 °C in 1 min. The protein concentration in cell lysates was determined by a modified Lowry procedure using bovine serum albumin as the standard. The specific SOD and CAT activities were expressed as U mg protein–1. Data were expressed as means ± SE of six replicates from two independent experiments. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance. Mean values were compared by Duncan’s new multiple range test at the 5% level using spss 17.0 software.

HCV antiviral recipients, diabetics and those on lipid-lowering drugs at baseline were excluded from the study. Factors associated with a decreased risk of grade 3 or 4 hyperlipidaemia or lipid-lowering drug use were assessed by multivariate logistic regression. A total of 1587 HIV-monoinfected, 190 HIV/HBV-coinfected and 255 HIV/HCV-coinfected patients were evaluated. Most were male (85–92% for the 3 groups evaluated: HIV, HIV/HBV, HIV/HCV). The median

[interquartile range (IQR)] age at HAART initiation was 48 (44–56) years and was similar between groups. The median (IQR) CD4 count at HAART initiation was 245 (120–370) cells/μL in HIV-monoinfected participants, 195 (110–330) cells/μL in HIV/HBV-coinfected participants and 268 (140–409) selleck chemicals llc cells/μL in HIV/HCV-coinfected participants. Factors associated with a decreased risk of grade 3 or 4 hyperlipidaemia or lipid-lowering drug use included HIV/HCV coinfection [odds ratio (OR) 0.46; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.34, 0.61; P<0.0001], HIV/HBV coinfection (OR

0.74; 95% CI 0.55, 0.99; P=0.04), year of starting HAART after 2004 vs. 1997 or earlier (OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.29, 0.48; P<0.0001) and year of starting HAART between 1998 and 2003 vs. 1997 or earlier (OR 0.75; 95% CI 0.61, 0.92; P<0.01). Factors HSP inhibitor associated with increased risk included age (OR 1.55; 95% CI 1.39, 1.72; per 10 years, P<0.0001) and male gender (OR 1.84; 95% CI 1.36, 2.48; P<0.0001). HIV/HCV and for to a lesser extent HIV/HBV coinfections are protective against HAART-related hyperlipidaemia. HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and/or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections frequently co-exist because of common risk factors for exposure

[1,2]. A negative interaction results in many instances. On average, HCV viral loads are increased and liver fibrosis rates are accelerated in the presence of HIV [3,4] and mortality rates are increased [5]. CD4 T-lymphocyte recovery following the initiation of combination antiretroviral therapy is blunted in HIV/HCV coinfection, although the causative role of HCV remains debatable [3]. Also, the occurrence of liver-specific adverse events related to antiretroviral therapy is increased and the efficacy of HBV and HCV antiviral therapy is diminished [4–6]. In contrast to the prevailing negative relationship between HIV and HCV infections in terms of the effect on the coinfected individual, there is evidence that the abnormal lipid profile observed in many patients following the initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) may be less pronounced in those with HIV/HCV coinfection [7]. Lower total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels have been reported in those with HCV infection, with and without advanced liver disease [8–13].

, 1998; Aoki et al., 2000). However, in the current study, false-positive amplifications with the primer sets SA1B10-1-F and SA1B10-1-R3, LG-1 and pLG-2, and cG-F and Lc-R5 were observed for genomic DNA of L. lactis subsp. lactis, Enterococcus casseliflavus, Enterococcus solitarius, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Streptococcus anginosus. Therefore, the new DNA signatures CAUF58 and CAUF64 show higher specificity for PCR-based detection

of L. garvieae compared with those of the current primers. Lactococcus garvieae, the leading agent of lactococcosis, affects many fish species worldwide. In addition, this bacterium is considered a potential zoonotic microorganism because it is known to cause human infections, and L. garvieae outbreaks in humans have recently been reported in Italy (Reimundo et al., 2011). Our data indicate that SSH can be exploited for the development of more stable and robust chromosome-specific PD0332991 concentration DNA signatures that will supplement the previously reported diagnostic markers including 16S rRNA for accurate identification of L. garvieae. This paper was sponsored by Wonkwang University in 2010. W.K. and H.K.P. contributed equally to this work. “
“A lipopolysaccharide mutant of Leptospira interrogans (LaiMut) was obtained by growth in the presence of an agglutinating monoclonal

antibody (mAb) against lipopolysaccharide. selleck kinase inhibitor Agglutination reactions with anti-lipopolysaccharide mAbs and polyclonal antibodies showed that LaiMut had lost some serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae agglutinating epitopes. However, LaiMut displayed an increased reactivity to antisera against related serogroups,

suggesting that the disruption Thalidomide of some lipopolysaccharide epitopes resulted in greater exposure to cross-reactive epitopes, not accessible to antibodies in the wild type (LaiWT). Comparison of the nucleotide sequences of the lipopolysaccharide loci of LaiMut and Lai wild type (LaiWT) strains showed an inframe stop mutation in the gene encoding undecaprenyl-galactosyltransferase, a protein that provides a fundamental and nonredundant function essential for lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis. Despite this, the biosynthesis of lipopolysaccharide agglutinating antigens was not abolished by the mutation. Based on the phenotype of LaiMut and analysis of the domain structure of the undecaprenyl-galactosyltransferase in relation to the mutation, we propose that the mutation results in the expression of two functional proteins in place of the undecaprenyl-galactosyltransferase. We hypothesize that the loss of coordination of the coupled function afforded by the intact dual function protein present in the parent strain results in an inefficient production of lipopolysaccharide in LaiMut. The genus Leptospira is classified genetically into more than 17 species, which can be more generally classified into three groups based on the genetic relationships between the species; these groups comprise the pathogenic, saprophytic, and intermediate species (Morey et al., 2006).

Other interesting, putatively pathogenicity-related dermatophyte genes have been identified recently in a broad transcriptome

approach in A. benhamiae during the interaction with human keratinocytes (Burmester et al., 2011). In comparison with many other fungi, dermatophytes have been shown to be less amenable to genetic manipulation. As a result, site-directed mutagenesis in dermatophyte species has been evidenced only in a very small number of cases. This drawback is assumed to be a result of both low transformation frequency and inefficient find more homologous integration, processes that are indispensable for targeted genetic manipulations. The first successful transformation of a dermatophyte has been described in 1989 by Gonzalez et al. (1989) in T. mentagrophytes (Table 1). The transformation protocol applied was based on a standard protoplast/polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated procedure that has been established widely in filamentous fungi,

for example Aspergillus nidulans, Neurospora crassa and others (for a review, see Fincham, 1989; Weld et al., 2006). As a marker for the selection of T. mentagrophytes transformants, the system used the bacterial hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene hph. Plasmid DNA was stably integrated into the fungal genome with varying integration sites and numbers of insertions in the resulting transformants. Thereafter, no further attempts on dermatophyte transformation have been reported until 2004, when Kaufman et al. (2004) described PEG-mediated DAPT protoplast transformation and restriction-enzyme-mediated integration in T. mentagrophytes, using the hph gene as a selectable marker and the gene

encoding the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) as a reporter. PEG-mediated transformation and transformant selection via hygromycin resistance was further demonstrated in M. canis (Yamada et al., 2005, 2006; Vermout et al., 2007) and T. rubrum (Fachin et al., 2006; Ferreira-Nozawa et al., 2006). Different other drugs/dominant markers have meanwhile Montelukast Sodium been proven successful for the selection of transformants in T. mentagrophytes, i.e. two other aminoglycoside antibiotics/resistance genes, nourseothricin/Streptomyces noursei nourseothricin acetyltransferase gene nat1 (Alshahni et al., 2010) and geneticin (G-418)/Escherichia coli neomycin phosphotransferase gene neo (Yamada et al., 2008). The latter marker as well as hph were also used successfully in A. benhamiae (Grumbt et al., 2011). Besides PEG-mediated protoplast transformation, other techniques facilitating gene transfer were also meanwhile adopted in dermatophytes. A promising Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) system was established recently for T. mentagrophytes (Yamada et al., 2009b). ATMT has already strongly advanced functional genomics in various filamentous fungi before (for a review, see Michielse et al.

Other interesting, putatively pathogenicity-related dermatophyte genes have been identified recently in a broad transcriptome

approach in A. benhamiae during the interaction with human keratinocytes (Burmester et al., 2011). In comparison with many other fungi, dermatophytes have been shown to be less amenable to genetic manipulation. As a result, site-directed mutagenesis in dermatophyte species has been evidenced only in a very small number of cases. This drawback is assumed to be a result of both low transformation frequency and inefficient this website homologous integration, processes that are indispensable for targeted genetic manipulations. The first successful transformation of a dermatophyte has been described in 1989 by Gonzalez et al. (1989) in T. mentagrophytes (Table 1). The transformation protocol applied was based on a standard protoplast/polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated procedure that has been established widely in filamentous fungi,

for example Aspergillus nidulans, Neurospora crassa and others (for a review, see Fincham, 1989; Weld et al., 2006). As a marker for the selection of T. mentagrophytes transformants, the system used the bacterial hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene hph. Plasmid DNA was stably integrated into the fungal genome with varying integration sites and numbers of insertions in the resulting transformants. Thereafter, no further attempts on dermatophyte transformation have been reported until 2004, when Kaufman et al. (2004) described PEG-mediated Metformin price protoplast transformation and restriction-enzyme-mediated integration in T. mentagrophytes, using the hph gene as a selectable marker and the gene

encoding the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) as a reporter. PEG-mediated transformation and transformant selection via hygromycin resistance was further demonstrated in M. canis (Yamada et al., 2005, 2006; Vermout et al., 2007) and T. rubrum (Fachin et al., 2006; Ferreira-Nozawa et al., 2006). Different other drugs/dominant markers have meanwhile NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase been proven successful for the selection of transformants in T. mentagrophytes, i.e. two other aminoglycoside antibiotics/resistance genes, nourseothricin/Streptomyces noursei nourseothricin acetyltransferase gene nat1 (Alshahni et al., 2010) and geneticin (G-418)/Escherichia coli neomycin phosphotransferase gene neo (Yamada et al., 2008). The latter marker as well as hph were also used successfully in A. benhamiae (Grumbt et al., 2011). Besides PEG-mediated protoplast transformation, other techniques facilitating gene transfer were also meanwhile adopted in dermatophytes. A promising Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) system was established recently for T. mentagrophytes (Yamada et al., 2009b). ATMT has already strongly advanced functional genomics in various filamentous fungi before (for a review, see Michielse et al.

No particular activity is known to predispose to infection, and person-to-person transmission is not believed to occur. Prior to the advent of HAART, disseminated MAC was seen in 40% of

patients with advanced HIV infection [1], with even higher rates at autopsy [2]. Since the start of the widespread use of HAART, the incidence of MAC has reduced significantly [3] and the prognosis has improved markedly [4], although the clinical picture has changed to include immune reconstitution disease [5] and focal infection. Disseminated PD-0332991 mouse MAC infection (DMAC) typically occurs in patients with advanced immunosuppression who have CD4 counts <50 cells/μL. Patients with DMAC frequently have nonspecific symptoms, signs and laboratory abnormalities, which may be attributed incorrectly to HIV progression or other HIV-related illnesses. Patients most commonly report fever, night sweats, fatigue, weight loss, anorexia and diarrhoea. Common signs include hepatomegaly and lymphadenopathy while laboratory abnormalities include anaemia, leukopenia, elevated alkaline phosphatase levels and hypoalbuminaemia. Radiological features include hepatosplenomegaly and intra-abdominal lymphadenopathy, which were demonstrated in one case series using abdominal computed tomography (CT) in 14 of 17 patients with DMAC [6]. More unusual focal manifestations of MAC infection include palatal and gingival ulceration,

septic arthritis and osteomyelitis, endophthalmitis, pericarditis, pulmonary Cabozantinib molecular weight and focal lymphadenitis [4,7–10]. Diagnosis of DMAC requires culture in blood or from

a bone marrow aspirate or fluid from a normally sterile site or biopsy specimen (category III recommendation). Definitive diagnosis of DMAC requires culture of the organism from a sterile body site. Isolation of MAC from non-sterile sites (sputum or stools) in the absence of clinical/radiological features suggestive of disseminated infection is insufficient to warrant antimycobacterial therapy. In some situations empirical treatment may be considered pending the results of culture given the time period necessary before cultures can be reliably deemed negative. Mycobacterial blood culture (standard and liquid) establishes the diagnosis in 86–98% of cases in which disseminated MAC infection is confirmed at autopsy [11,12]. One blood culture identifies 91% of patients with Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase MAC bacteraemia, a second blood culture increases the identification rate to 98% [13]. Therefore, obtaining paired or more than two sequential blood specimens for culture to diagnose MAC bacteraemia is unnecessary [14]. The preferred culture method includes lysis of peripheral blood leukocytes to release intracellular mycobacteria followed by inoculation on to solid media (e.g. Lowenstein–Jensen, Middlebrook 7H11 agar) or into radiometric broth [15]. Using the radiometric detection system, mycobacteraemia can be detected in as little as 6–12 days, whereas 15–40 days are required with solid media.

The practice

questions incorporate feedback responses to help students reach the correct answer. The package design involved the use of a digital recording pen and pad to record tutor voice to explain each calculation step. The aim of this project was to evaluate the usefulness, level and ease of use of the e-package and its impact on students’ performance. This Tacrolimus cell line study used a survey questionnaire targeted at third year MPharm students. The questionnaire (mostly closed ended questions and Likert scales) was developed and the study was approved by the University Ethics Committee. Face validity was obtained via academic staff and content validity was determined via a pilot study with ten MPharm students. Two short calculation quizzes (5 questions) were developed: one quiz was delivered before the e-package was released and one after two weeks. The questionnaire was distributed and completed in workshops after the post package quiz. Of a total 145 third year students, 90 (62%) attended both workshops where the pre and post package quizzes were completed, hence

were eligible for analysis. Quiz results pre- and post the package showed; 68% scores were improved, 13% decreased and 19% no difference. The % score for each question pre and post Caspase inhibitor use of the package respectively were as follows; dosage calculation 43% vs 27%, body mass index 32% vs 44%, dilution 9% vs 44%, infusion rate 2% vs 46% and quantity dispensed 36% vs 50%. Statistical evaluation using a paired t-test has shown that the difference in scores is statistically significant with a p value <0.001. 100 students completed the questionnaire, 41 of which had used the e-package. Main reason for not using the package was lack of time (54%, n = 32). The design components were rated as good/ very good by the following % of students: layout (77%) imagery (69%), navigation (67%),

interactiveness (70%) and user friendliness (77%). Majority of students (83%) used the worked examples and 76% found these helpful/very helpful. After using the package, 64% felt very confident/confident Tolmetin with calculations. With regards using the package in the future, 83% said for revision, 44% for pre-registration exam and 29% in further years of study. Findings show significant improvement in scores after release of the e-package. It may be that the package added to the methods students use to practice their calculations. The tight timescale meant not all students who would want to use the package got a chance, however those that did were very positive about the design, ease of use and impact on their calculation competency. It is hoped that the evaluation following the full launch of the package will endorse the positive results and help the package to be optimised. 1. Baby dies after peppermint water prescription for colic. The Pharmaceutical Journal 1998; 260: 768. 2. Ozkan S, Koseler R.

, 2004; Herndl et al., 2005; Alonso-Sáez & Gasol, 2007). selleck products The commonly used radiotracers are 3H, 14C, and 35S coupled to organic or inorganic compounds. In a recent study, 33P-labeled phosphate was successfully used to assess the bacterial groups contributing

to the phosphorus cycle (Longnecker et al., 2010). In the case of iron, the radioisotope 55Fe has been widely applied for autoradiographic analyses in cellular biology or biochemistry (Orlic, 1968; Parry & Blackett, 1973). By contrast, only two studies have thus far applied 55Fe microautoradiography to investigate the uptake of iron by different aquatic microorganisms on a single-cell level. Paerl (1982) demonstrated the feasibility of 55Fe microautoradiography with cultures of the nitrogen-fixing Cyanobacterium Anabaena spp. isolated from a eutrophic lake. The cultures used by Paerl (1982) were not axenic, they therefore provided also microautoradiographic evidence for the utilization of 55Fe by free-living bacteria or bacteria attached to filaments. The two major challenges pointed out by Paerl (1982) were the exposure time of several weeks to develop the silver grains and the abiotic adsorption of 55Fe to filters or particulate matter, which resulted in a

high number of nonspecific silver grains. In the marine environment, the only study applying 55Fe microautoradiography to determine cell-specific activity is based on phytoplankton cells (Hutchins et al., 1993). These authors demonstrated the incorporation of 55Fe by different members of the phytoplankton community, in particular by the diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii Omipalisib solubility dmso and by the Cyanobacterium Synechococcus

spp. (Hutchins et al., 1993). The contribution of different bacterial groups to the utilization of iron in the marine environment has, however, not been addressed thus far. The objective of this study was to elaborate a protocol for the use of 55Fe as a radiotracer for bacterial single-cell analysis, applying Amine dehydrogenase microautoradiography coupled to FISH. The 55FeCl3 stock solution (1.86 × 103 Ci mol−1; PerkinElmer) was diluted 10 000 times in 0.012 M suprapur HCl to obtain the working solution. Preparation of the wash solutions oxalate-Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and Ti-citrate-EDTA was performed following the protocols described in Tovar-Sanchez et al. (2003) and in Hudson & Morel (1989), respectively. Solutions were 0.2-μm-filtered (syringe filter; Acrodisc) before use. For sampling and incubations, we used polycarbonate (PC) bottles and plastic ware soaked in 10% HCl for at least 24 h and subsequently rinsed with Milli-Q (MQ) water before being used. Labware was sterilized three times by microwaving (5 min, power 750W), dried, and stored under a laminar flow hood. This cleaning procedure was performed in a clean room. In a first set of experiments, we used the bacterial strain Alteromonas macleodii (MOLA60, GenBank accession number: AM990835).

minor (70%). The role of this protein in infection is unclear; however, because of the large increase in expression in vivo, and the possible surface localization, it may be antigenic and a potential vaccine candidate. Twenty-seven genes that were differentially expressed had lower

expression levels in vivo. Many of these genes were involved in energy metabolism (11/27). These include a number of genes involved in electron transport. This could reflect a lower energy requirement during this stage of infection. Some of the genes identified in this study showed similar expression patterns in previous studies. For example, torC, frdB, and frdC all had lower expression in A. pleuropneumoniae and M. hemolytica A1 cultured in vitro under iron-restricted conditions (Deslandes et al., 2007; Roehrig et al., 2007). As iron restriction selleck products causes a decrease in growth rate, the similar results to ours may not be iron-specific. It is possible that Erastin molecular weight in both systems an increase doubling time may account for decreased in energy requirements. Mannheimia hemolytica A1 genes encoding proteins involved in amino acid transport and metabolism and cell envelope biogenesis also had lower expression. Again, similar results were reported in A. pleuropneumoniae grown in vivo and M. hemolytica A1 grown in vitro under iron-restricted conditions (Roehrig et al., 2007; Deslandes et al., 2010).

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae from a pneumonic lung also exhibited lower

expression of genes involved in cell envelope biogenesis (Deslandes et al., 2010). The lower expression of genes involved in energy metabolism, cell envelope biogenesis, and amino acid transport and metabolism observed in this study may be due selleck chemical to the in vivo samples being derived from the lung washings of calves at 6 days after challenge where bacterial growth may be slower. The gene encoding glutamate dehydrogenase, gdhA, had the lowest level of expression in this study (27-fold lower), when compared with the in vitro levels. The aspC gene, encoding aspartate transaminase, was also severely lower (−11 fold). In contrast, in vivo studies of Pasteurella multocida obtained from blood of infected chickens demonstrated that both aspC and gdhA had higher expression in vivo. As GdhA is key to nitrogen assimilation by converting ammonia to glutamate and AspC converts glutamate to aspartate, this may indicate that amino acid pool is sufficient at this stage of infection. Two of the virulence-associated genes (lktA and nmaA) that we have previously analyzed by RT-PCR and qPCR (Lo et al., 2006; S. Sathiamoorthy et al., manuscript submitted) were differentially expressed in this study. Both genes showed greater than eightfold lower expression in lung washings obtained from both calves. qRT-PCR analysis of lktA expression during the earlier time points of infection showed that the expression was higher in vivo than in vitro.