Interestingly, GWAS have highlighted several genes associated with susceptibility to schizophrenia, many of which have a VDR-binding site within or close to them. The genes that are potentially regulated by vitamin D subserve a diverse range of biological functions including membrane transport, maintenance of nucleosome structure, and signal transduction to name a few (see Table 1). Some of these vitamin D mediated genes have an intimate relationship with brain

morphology and function as evidenced by their demonstrated role Palbociclib in neuronal migration and gyration, dendritic spine morphology, and neuronal connectivity (see Table 1) [105-108]. The full scope of the functional impact of vitamin D on the expression of these schizophrenia-associated genes in the brain warrants further study. Autism is part of a spectrum of developmental disorders characterized by deficits in social cognition, language,

communication, and stereotypical patterns of behaviour [109]. Neuropathological features lack clear definition; however, the disorder shows changes consistent with pre- and post-natal developmental Kinase Inhibitor Library concentration abnormalities that involve multiple brain regions, including the cerebral cortex, subcortical white matter, amygdala, brainstem, and cerebellum [110]. It has been proposed that autism demonstrates developmentally specific neural changes, with early brain overgrowth at the beginning of life (thought to be secondary to excessive neurone number), slowing or arrest of growth during early childhood, and neurodegeneration in adult life, at least in a subset of patients [111]. As vitamin D has been shown to inhibit excessive cellular proliferation in early rat brain development [27, 62], it has been argued that gestational hypovitaminosis Sodium butyrate D contributes to excessive neuronal proliferation

in the developing brain and, therefore, could serve as a useful model for autism [112]. Epidemiological evidence for a contribution of vitamin D to the pathogenesis of autism exists but is less striking than for schizophrenia. This, in part, relates to issues of ascertainment, sensitivity/specificity of diagnosis, and differences in study methodology. Seasonality of birth has been reported to be associated with autism in the early spring in Scandinavia, Japan, United Kingdom, and the USA [113-115]. Some studies report an increased peak of births during summer months [116], and others show this effect restricted to men [114] or not existent at all [117]. A latitude effect has been illustrated on both the magnitude of the month of birth effect and in overall disease prevalence [118]; however, the effect has only been discernible in a cohort prior to the surge in autism prevalence in the 1990s. Migration appears to affect prevalence rates of autism.