Oxaloacetate is then available as substrate for glycogen re-synthesis. Increased expression of malate dehydrogenase in CMH supplemented myotubes together with reduced intracellular
content of the reaction substrate malate as detected by the NMR signal at 2.39 ppm. (Figure 3) support the assumptions above. Thus, the data related to cellular energy metabolism broadly confirm previously described effects of CMH, but CMH supplementation has also been associated with cytoskeleton remodelling [8]. In the present study, structural perturbations were only indicated by an up regulation of the intermediate filament protein vimentin, which may just reflect maintenance of cellular integrity. Other studies have shown that neither muscle hypertrophy MEK inhibitor LY3009104 nor performance of rat skeletal muscle was augmented by creatine, and the authors argued that positive findings in relation to performance
may rather be due to an enhanced ability to train [34]. Other effects of creatine support the hypothesis of creatine-induced improved ability to train through a direct antioxidant effect of creatine [35] on DNA molecules [36] or through activation of some of the cellular antioxidative systems. The intracellular protection mechanisms against reactive oxygen species are very delicately balanced and, when exposed to stressors, adjustments in the defense mechanisms may be induced [37]. In various cell cultures including murine myoblasts an increased creatine level was associated with general cytoprotective effects towards oxidative agents [38, 39]. However, the activities of the antioxidative enzymes catalase and glutathionperoxidase were not affected
by creatine treatment Reverse transcriptase [38, 39], and the authors ascribed the cytoprotective effect to scavenging dependent antioxidative mechanisms [38]. In the present study on murine myotubes, we revealed an additional antioxidant effect of creatine, i.e. its capacity to induce up-regulation of one of the cellular antioxidative systems the thiol redox system, which consists of the glutathione and thioredoxin pathways [40]. Two thioredoxin reductases situated in the mitochondria and cytoplasm, respectively, were increased in creatine treated cells (Table 1); peroxiredoxin-4, a type 2 peroxiredoxin, and thioredoxin dependent click here peroxide reductase. These systems catalyse thiol-disulfide exchange reactions and thereby control the redox state of cytoplasmic cysteine residues, thus protecting e.g. radical sensitive enzymes from oxidative damage. An up-regulation of these very universally important redox systems as well as reduced intracellular DCFH2 oxidation (Figure 4) is an indication of an improved resistance towards oxidative challenges in cells exposed to CMH. Improvement of the intracellular antioxidative mechanisms will enhance the ability to cope with the increased levels of reactive oxygen species inevitably following increased exercise.