More recent studies have examined novel behavioral outcomes,

including social buffering effects on pain tolerance (reviewed in Martin et al., 2014) and changes in alcohol consumption (Anacker et al., 2011; Hostetler and Ryabinin, 2014). Social housing impacts HPA axis responsiveness to a stressor or to hormonal stimulation via CRF. Following CRF administration, male group-housed rats have reduced CORT and ACTH relative to isolated males (Ruis et al., 1999). In young male guinea pigs, presence of the mother or an unfamiliar adult female attenuates increases in plasma ACTH, cortisol and vocalizations in response SNS-032 chemical structure to a novel environment (Hennessy et al., 2000), with additional, subtly varying effects across the lifespan (Hennessy et al., 2006). Studies in prairie voles allow for distinction between buffering by social peers and reproductive partners.

In prairie voles, exposure to a novel individual of the opposite sex leads to a decline in serum CORT over the following 15–60 min Bortezomib clinical trial in both males and females, while same-sex novel pairings did not influence serum CORT (DeVries et al., 1997 and DeVries et al., 1995). This decline in CORT may be important for the ability of the female to form a partner preference, while it must pass in order for males to form (CORT-dependent) partner preferences (DeVries, 2002). The nature of social buffering may be quite different within established social relationships: in prairie voles, female sibling pairs experienced elevated CORT Etomidate following separation and this effect was attenuated following reunion (unpublished data referenced in Carter et al., 1995). In males, loss of a female partner also

resulted in increased circulating CORT as well as increased adrenal weight (Bosch et al., 2009). The presence of a partner may provide social buffering from a stressor; female prairie voles that recovered alone from immobilization stress exhibited high levels of CORT and increased anxiety behavior, while females recovering with their male partner showed no such elevation (Smith and Wang, 2014). While CORT is an easily measured signal that often relates to stress level, it is worth noting that measurement of glucocorticoids is not always a clear indicator of either stress exposure or stressed affect, and stress may result in both enhanced and dampened CORT profiles depending on timing and chronicity (e.g. Sapolsky et al., 2000 and Beery et al., 2012). Social companionship has been associated with outcomes beyond the HPA axis, although many of these changes may ultimately be related to common pathways. For example, in prairie voles, females recovering from immobilization stress with a male partner showed no CORT elevation, coupled with evidence of increased oxytocin (OT) release in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus.