In addition, the rhythmic, synchronized discharges could create a channel for the midbrain network to route signals to particular downstream descending (brainstem) or ascending (thalamic and forebrain) circuits, similar to the channels proposed for cortico-cortical communication (Akam and Kullmann, 2010 and Gregoriou et al., 2009). Consistent with

this hypothesis, stimulus-driven, coherent oscillations have been reported between the OT and one of its thalamic targets (Marín et al., 2007). Furthermore, synchronous microstimulation of two points in the SC space map yields quantitatively different neural computations and motor outputs than does asynchronous stimulation (Brecht et al., 2004). Thus, synchrony appears to be utilized and transmitted by local OT/SC circuits. The persistence of the oscillations could act as a short-term memory of the locations of salient stimuli, enabling crossmodal and top-down enhancement of sensory selleck chemicals responses across brief periods of time (∼100 ms). For example, a salient, spatially localized auditory stimulus that activates the gamma oscillator in the multisensory i/dOT would, via the Ipc circuit, increase the sensitivity of sOT neurons to subsequent visual stimuli from the same location in space. Thus, persistence may be essential for integrating sensory information from different modalities and from different parts of the brain that reaches the OT with different delays. The induction

of gamma oscillations by sensory stimuli and the Tofacitinib concentration modulation of gamma power by attention are prominent phenomena in the mammalian forebrain (Fries, 2009). The discovery that the OT contains its own persistent gamma generator is important in the context of recent studies that implicate the

OT as a critical node in the network of brain structures that mediate gaze control and spatial attention (Knudsen, 2011 and Lovejoy TCL and Krauzlis, 2009). The spatial separation and accessibility of the various inputs, outputs, and component cell-types that make up this attention-related midbrain network provide a unique opportunity for understanding the circuit mechanisms of gamma oscillations and their influence on information processing at an unprecedented level of detail. More details on these methods, as well as additional methods and analyses, can be found in Supplemental Information. All animals were treated in accordance with institutional guidelines. Acquisition and analysis of field recordings in vivo from the barn owl optic tectum (shown in Figures 1, S1, and S5) followed procedures described in (Sridharan et al., 2011). All animals were treated in accordance with institutional guidelines. White Leghorn chicks (Gallus gallus), aged p1–p6, were anesthetized with isoflurane, decapitated, and the brains were removed and immersed in a cutting solution (4°C) containing 234 mM sucrose, 11 mM glucose, 24 mM NaHCO3, 2.5 mM KCl, 1.25 mM NaH2PO4, 10 mM MgSO4, and 0.