IL-10 KO mice naturally develop inflammation in the colon from 10 to 12 weeks of age [43]; however, in the present study, the NKG2D ligand expression on small IECs was investigated in the IL-10 KO mice before any development of clinical sign of colitis. Nonetheless, we cannot exclude that NKG2D

ligand upregulation is induced by an inflammatory molecule produced in these mice, especially as we in the present study found no alterations in the intestinal IL-10 levels of the antibiotic-treated mice. In addition, decreased level of IFN-γ and IL-15 in the small intestine was observed in the vancomycin-treated mice similar to the NKG2D ligand expression and IL-15 was furthermore increased in the ampicillin-treated mice as was the NKG2D ligand expression. https://www.selleckchem.com/products/ABT-263.html This is interesting, as IL-15 is known to be directly involved in NKG2D ligand upregulation on IELs during celiac disease [5], and it is thus tempting to speculate that a less proinflammatory state, kept in check by the commensal microbes, actively keeps the NKG2D ligand expression low, although such a scenario needs experimental verification. IL-17 was however downregulated in both ampicillin-

and vancomycin-treated mice which suggests that this cytokine is not involved in the regulation of NKG2D ligands on IECs. Instead, both antibiotic treatments most likely eradicated important bacteria, for example segmented filamentous bacteria which can induce IL-17 [31, CYC202 44]. The commensal microbiota may also directly express or secrete molecules that affect NKG2D ligand surface expression. We have previously shown that propionate from propionic bacteria is involved in the opposite scenario, as it increases

NKG2D ligand expression [17]. Further studies are however needed to establish the mechanisms behind these interesting Tangeritin observations. It is noteworthy that the level of NKG2D ligand expression was substantially lower in the B6 mice housed in the Novo Nordisk animal facility compared with that in B6 mice housed at the University of Copenhagen. Differences in gut microbiota compositions in the groups of untreated control mice because of the different facility environments, sex, and animal vendors from which the mice were purchased, may explain the observed differences in NKG2D ligand expression. In general, we believe that it is important to take differences in microbiota composition into account, when comparing levels of NKG2D ligands measured by different laboratories. This could, at least partly, explain differences observed in the past. NKG2D ligand regulation by microbial interaction is supported by a growing body of data. Tieng et al. [7] have shown increased expression of NKG2D ligands on IECs after infection with certain pathogenic strains of E. coli and IECs have also been shown to express NKG2D ligands upon TLR3-dependent poly I:C treatment [45].