Vertebrates cannot synthesize chitin; however, their genomes contain genes for chitinases and chitinase-like proteins which might play a role in recognition and immune defense of fungi and helminth parasites 1–3. Chitinase-like proteins are linked to genomic regions encoding MHC paralogous genes, suggesting that they might have been part of a “proto MHC” before the bilateral expansion 4, 5. Natural Ab to N-acetyl-glucosamine, the sugar monomer of chitin, have

been detected in various mouse strains with increased titers in aged mice 6. In addition, chitin-specific Ab have been generated in rabbits 7. This demonstrates that the adaptive immune system can recognize and respond to chitin. Infections with helminths generally induce expression of the acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase) and Fostamatinib chemical structure the chitinase-like proteins Ym1/Ym2 in an IL-4 or IL-13-dependent manner 8, 9. AMCase was also found to be induced after allergic provocation of the lung and pathology could be ameliorated by administration of the allosteric inhibitor allosamidin 10. However, constitutive expression of AMCase in the lung of transgenic mice did not cause inflammation or airway hyper-reactivity and rather protected against chitin-induced recruitment of eosinophils and basophils 9. Macrophages and DC are

probably click here the main cell types that recognize chitin and subsequently modulate the adaptive immune response. Potential transmembrane receptors for chitin include the mannose receptor 11, TLR2 and dectin-112 and the recently described fibrinogen C domain-containing protein 1 13. The modulation of immune responses by chitin is still poorly understood and may depend on particle size and route of administration. Baricitinib It has been shown that

intravenous injection of chitin induces IFN-γ release from NK cells and activation of alveolar macrophages 14. We noticed a transient recruitment of eosinophils and basophils after intranasal application of chitin 9. Furthermore, chitin induced expression of arginase 1 (Arg1) in macrophages. This gene is known to be strongly upregulated by the Th2-associated cytokines IL-4 or IL-13 and serves as prototypic marker for alternatively activated macrophages (AAM) 9. Therefore, chitin may promote type 2 immune responses. However, reduced eosinophilia and lower levels of Th2 cytokines were observed after oral or intranasal chitin administration during allergic immunization with OVA or extracts from ragweed, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus or Aspergillus fumigatus15–17. Chitin was further found to induce IL-17A and TNF-α expression by BM-derived or peritoneal macrophages in a TLR2- and dectin-1-dependent manner 12, 18. In addition, small chitin particles (<40 μm) also induced IL-10 expression by macrophages in vitro, suggesting that chitin-exposed macrophages may have immune suppressive functions 12. Macrophages serve as APC for CD4+ T cells, as they take up antigens and present them in the context of peptide/MHC-II complexes.